Wilson, Woodrow,

Wilson
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in full THOMAS WOODROW WILSON (b. Dec. 28, 1856, Staunton, Va., U.S.--d. Feb.
3, 1924, Washington, D.C.), 28th president of the United States (1913-21), an
American statesman remembered for his high-minded and sometimes inflexible
idealism, who led his country into World War I and became the leading advocate
of the League of Nations at the Paris Peace Conference. He suffered a nervous
collapse and stroke of paralysis while vainly seeking American public support
for the Treaty of Versailles (September-October 1919).
Early life, education, and governorship.
Wilson had two older sisters, Marion and Anne, and a younger brother, Joseph.
The stern Presbyterianism of Woodrow's father, Joseph Ruggles Wilson, a minister
of indomitable character and theological distinction, left an indelible
impression upon the character of the future president. Wilson's early years were
spent in Georgia and South Carolina, where he was deeply affected by the ravages
of the Civil War and the suffering of the South during the postwar
Reconstruction period. After a brief stay at Davidson College in North Carolina
he entered what is now Princeton University in 1875, took a prominent part in
debate, literary activities, and the administration of student athletics, and
was graduated in about the middle of his class. His most notable undergraduate
achievement was the publication of an article that skillfully analyzed the
committee system of the U.S. Congress and foreshadowed his more mature political
principles. After graduation he studied law at the University of Virginia until
poor health cut short his residence. Following an unsuccessful attempt at legal
practice in Atlanta, Ga., he pursued advanced studies in government and history
at Johns Hopkins University, where, in 1886, he received a Ph.D.
Wilson's doctoral dissertation, Congressional Government, developed
his attack upon the congressional committees. In the same year he married Ellen
Louise Axson of Savannah, Ga., and began a teaching career at Bryn Mawr College
as associate professor of history and political economy.
In 1888 he became a professor at Wesleyan University in Connecticut; two
years later he joined the Princeton faculty as professor of jurisprudence and
political economy, in which capacity he served until 1902, when he was chosen
president of the university. (see also Index: Princeton University)
At Princeton, Wilson achieved a national reputation by his addresses and
articles on political questions of the day, and in September 1910 he was offered
the Democratic nomination for the governorship of New
Jersey. The offer came at a moment when prospects for the success of
his policies at Princeton seemed most discouraging, and he readily accepted.
Conducting a dynamic and fearless campaign, he won the support of progressive
elements throughout the state and was elected.
Wilson's rapid and resounding success in New Jersey brought him into the
arena of national politics, and when the Democratic National Convention met in
June 1912 to select a presidential candidate, Wilson was nominated. In the
presidential campaign that followed, the clarity and positive quality of
Wilson's domestic program won him the leadership of the Democratic Party
and of the progressive movement throughout the country.
First term as president.

Wilson at the 1915 World Series
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[Image] Once in the White House,
Wilson proceeded with amazing vigour to initiate and carry through major items
of legislation he had advocated in his campaign. He delivered his first message
to Congress in person, thus renewing the custom that had lapsed with John Adams.
In this session and later he constantly intervened to influence individual
senators and representatives on behalf of his programs. Wilson's legislative
record in his first two years of office was impressive. His first major victory
came with passage of the Underwood Tariff,
which reduced customs levies despite the bitter opposition of varied industrial
interests. To counterbalance the downward drift of tariff funds, the act levied
a federal income tax, under
authority of the then recently adopted 16th Amendment to the constitution. The
new tariff act was followed by a broad measure of currency reform -- the Federal
Reserve Act, signed Dec. 23, 1913. Designed to supplant the alleged
dictatorship of private banking institutions by the creation of a Federal
Reserve Board, which would control the expansion and contraction of currency, it
was destined to become the pediment of the national financial structure. The
establishment of the Federal Trade Commission
in 1914, the same year in which his wife died, provided for the use of federal
powers to assure competitive conditions in trade. In the same year the Clayton
Anti-Trust Act strengthened labour organization by prohibiting the use of
injunctions in labour disputes (unless they were necessary to prevent
irreparable damage) and legalizing strikes and boycotts. The achievement in
these four fields helped create a new social and economic atmosphere. (see also Index:
Clayton Antitrust Act, trade union)
Wilson's foreign policy was characterized, at least in principle, by a
refusal to exert material power against weaker countries and by a studied
respect for the rights and interests of small ones. Steps were taken, for
example, to prepare the people of the Philippines Islands for self-government.
At Wilson's urgent request, Congress repealed the law that exempted U.S.
shipping from Panama Canal tolls, thereby greatly relieving tension with the
British. Confronted with disturbing conditions in the Caribbean, the United
States tightened its vigilance. By a treaty signed on Sept. 16, 1915, the United
States assumed a virtual protectorate over Haiti. Precautionary visits of U.S.
cruisers to Santo Domingo were followed in the summer of 1916 by the landing of
marines and in November by proclamation of a military government under U.S.
auspices. (see also Index: Dominican Republic)
Revolutionary Mexico confronted
Wilson with a dangerously chaotic situation. Unable to depose Gen. Victoriano
Huerta from his dictatorship, Wilson resigned himself to a policy of
"watchful waiting"; he opposed the formal intervention being urged on
him by U.S. and European business interests. In April 1914, following affronts
to U.S. sailors for which no apology was forthcoming, and to prevent the landing
of munitions from a German ship, a U.S. naval force seized terminal facilities
of Veracruz.
The overthrow of Huerta brought no settlement of the civil war, which
continued to threaten U.S. business interests, and Wilson's recognition of the
government of Venustiano Carranza did not end the problem. The raids of the
guerrilla leader Pancho Villa into
U.S. territory in March 1916 led Wilson to authorize a punitive expedition under
Gen. John J. Pershing. The Mexican revolution
was to plague Wilson to the end of his administration.
United States foreign affairs after July 1914 were dominated by Wilson's
efforts to protect the rights of the country as a neutral in World War I. A
formal proclamation of neutrality
was emphasized by a more personal appeal, in which he adjured Americans to
remain neutral in thought as well as in behaviour. Meanwhile, his offer of
mediation evoked no favourable response, and his attempts to initiate secret
peace negotiations failed. On Feb. 4, 1915, the government in Berlin, declaring
the waters around the British Isles a war zone, threatened to sink all
belligerent ships within that zone and gave warning that neutral ships might
also be sunk. Wilson replied in a vigorous note on February 10, warning Germany
that it would be held to "strict accountability" for the lawless acts
of its submarine commanders. Destruction of a U.S. vessel or of American lives,
Wilson said, would be regarded as an "indefensible violation of neutral
rights." The Germans, nevertheless, maintained their position, and on May 7
the British liner "Lusitania"
was sunk without warning by a German submarine; more than 1,000 persons were
drowned, among them 128 Americans.
Determined to avoid war, Wilson displayed long-suffering patience in the
negotiations of the ensuing weeks, but his will to compel Germany to abide by
the established rules of cruiser warfare was unshakable. His protest to Germany
was, in fact, so strongly worded that Secretary of State William
Jennings Bryan resigned rather than sign it. Following the sinking of
the "Arabic" in August 1915, the German government promised that in
the future liners would not be attacked without warning. In the spring of 1916,
when a rupture with Germany was
imminent because of the torpedoing of the steamer "Sussex," Wilson
protested in terms that amounted to an ultimatum and finally drew from Berlin a
more comprehensive pledge to abandon their submarine campaign altogether. For
the next seven months, relations with Germany were less disturbed. (see also Index:
Sussex Incident)
Second term as president.
This diplomatic victory not only postponed U.S. intervention in the war but
was of political value in Wilson's reelection campaign of 1916. It gave strength
to the argument that he had vindicated the rights of the country successfully
and had "kept us out of war." The slogan had strong popular appeal,
especially west of the Mississippi. The Republicans, who nominated Charles Evans
Hughes, denounced Wilson as hesitating and cowardly, both in his dealing with
Germany and in his handling of the Mexican problem. They criticized his
legislative reforms as demagogic and cited the Adamson Act,
which Wilson had urged upon Congress to avert a railroad strike, as an untimely
surrender to labour. On the eastern seaboard and in most of the industrial
centres of the Midwest the reunited Republican party could count on success, but
in the farming districts west of the Mississippi and on the Pacific coast Wilson
showed great strength drawing largely from the Progressives, who refused to
follow Theodore Roosevelt back into the Republican fold. The result of the
election was so close that for hours Republican victory was generally conceded.
Only as returns from the west came in was it determined that Wilson had been
reelected.
Wilson's drive for peace negotiations was frustrated by the German decision
on Jan. 9, 1917, to renew the unrestricted submarine campaign. Wilson was
willing to negotiate everything except the sinking without warning of passenger
and merchant ships, but the Germans showed no sign of weakening. Opinion in the
United States was exasperated by the formal declaration of the renewal of the
submarine warfare and especially by the virtual blockade of cargoes in U.S.
ports held there by fear of submarine attacks. It was infuriated by publication
of the so-called Zimmermann
Telegram that suggested a German-Mexican-Japanese alliance and a
Mexican reconquest of Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona and by the sinking of the
"Laconia" with the loss of American lives. Unable to resist longer the
pressure of events and public opinion, Wilson asked Congress on April 2 for a
declaration of war, which was passed by an overwhelming majority.
The United States was ill prepared for war, a condition for which Wilson
carried a heavy share of responsibility, but once in the war he displayed
outstanding qualities of leadership. In a speech on Jan. 8, 1918, he enumerated
the Fourteen Points that he
regarded as being an essential basis of a just and lasting peace, and in the
course of the following eight months he elaborated on them. When the Germans
faced complete defeat in early October 1918, they naturally turned to Wilson and
offered to accept his Fourteen Points and later speeches as the basis of peace.
Though the British and French were by no means prepared to accept the peace, the
Fourteen Points (with certain exceptions) were accepted by the Allied chiefs and
Germany as the basis of the forthcoming settlement. This strategic advantage to
Wilson in the coming peace negotiations was offset by the congressional
elections in November 1918 whereby his party lost control of the Senate and his
adversaries gained control of the important Senate Foreign Relations Committee.
Wilson was determined to go himself to the peace conference at Paris and to
lead the battle for the principles he had been advocating. These principles
constituted a threefold and interlocking concept: the liberation of peoples,
justice to friend and enemy alike, and the assurance of peace through the
establishment of a League of Nations.
Wilson arrived at Brest, France, on Dec. 13, 1918. He was received in France,
England, and Italy with enthusiasm, but his prestige became clouded when he
confronted the nationalistic aspirations of individual peoples. The president
won acceptance of the principle that a League of Nations should be an integral
part of the treaties, but his success in the establishment of the League was
obscured by the concessions he was forced to make to national territorial and
economic demands. The peace of reconciliation which he had preached was not
achieved. On every debatable issue, Germany and its wartime allies got the worst
of it. The unilateral disarmament imposed on Germany made a mockery of the
program outlined in the Fourteen Points. But the overall settlement, if it could
actually be carried into effect, promised the security that everyone demanded.
It recognized the claims of the smaller nationalities to a degree hitherto never
approached. It provided for a working partnership of the new world with the old.
On June 28, 1919, the Versailles Treaty
with Germany was signed, and on the following day Wilson sailed for home. (see
also Index: Paris Peace Conference)
The strain of the conference had told upon the president's physical and
nervous strength, and he was not well equipped to carry on the contest with his
opponents in the Senate that was to develop upon his presentation of the treaty.
In search of popular support that would overwhelm the Senate, he set forth on a
crusade in behalf of the treaty and the League. In Colorado, on Sept. 25, 1919,
after 34 major addresses and scores of interviews, parades, and rear platform
talks, he was compelled to give up his tour. He returned to Washington, D.C., in
a state of collapse and shortly suffered a thrombosis that impaired control over
the left side of his body.
No one else was capable of leading the fight for ratification, and efforts to
arrange a compromise proved fruitless. With something of his physical health
regained, with his mind nervously active, but with his grasp of affairs
unrealistic, Wilson drafted a far-fetched plan to submit the issue to popular
vote at a special election--"a great and solemn referendum." Efforts
to achieve agreement made in a bipartisan conference of the Senate foundered on
the bitter-end opposition of Republican irreconcilables. On March 19, 1920, the
final vote was taken on the ratifying resolution that again contained a strong
enough reservation on Article X (providing for collective security) to evoke
Wilson's condemnation. Once more he urged his followers to vote against
ratification and 23 of them did so. The United States was thus ironically kept
out of the League of Nations at the behest of the man who had done more than any
other to create it.
Election, 1920.
Wilson's physical condition in 1920 prevented him from taking an active role
in the presidential campaign. The Democrats chose Governor James M. Cox of Ohio
as their presidential candidate. Wilson's hope that the election would serve as
a popular referendum settling the issues between himself and Senator Henry Cabot Lodge,
leader of the opposition to the League of Nations, was not fulfilled. Indeed,
many influential advocates of the League supported the Republican candidate, Warren
G. Harding, and the election proved an overwhelming victory for the
Republicans. The bitterness of Wilson's disappointment over the election was to
some extent alleviated by the 1919 Nobel Prize for Peace awarded him in December
1920. His annual message to Congress made no reference to what always lay
nearest his heart--the League of Nations. This reticence on world affairs he
maintained until the end of his administration, March 4, 1921.
Wilson lived quietly in Washington, D.C., refraining from political comments
and avoiding political contacts, for the remaining three years of his life. The
legal and the literary activities that he had anticipated lay beyond his waning
physical powers. He died in 1924. He was survived by his second wife, Edith
Bolling Galt Wilson, whom he had married on Dec. 18, 1915. During the worst of
his illness in the White House she had sought to spare him every political
anxiety and in the process had assumed much of the responsibility belonging to
the presidential office. She lived until Dec. 28, 1961.
Evaluation.
Woodrow Wilson was qualified in the highest degree for a career in public
affairs by his sense of responsibility to the public welfare. The depth of his
idealistic fervour gave force to his political leadership, which was further
strengthened by his outstanding oratorical capacity, but the intensity of that
fervour crippled his ability for effective compromise. He was impatient of
partisan opposition, and there was much of the intolerant Calvinist in his
refusal to deviate from the path that he believed himself appointed by
providence to tread. His illusion that the nobility of ideals would suffice to
obliterate the stubborn facts of political life took his international policy
down the road to bankruptcy. Though a great leader, he lacked the political
intuition and deftness that might have saved him at Princeton, strengthened his
contribution to the Paris Peace Conference, and brought his country into the
League of Nations.
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