| Lutheranism,
the branch of the Western Christian church that adopted the religious
principles of Martin Luther, as opposed
to those of the Roman Catholic Church and of the followers of John Calvin,
the Anglican Communion, and the sectaries of the Reformation period.
Lutheran churches often term themselves Evangelical as distinct from
Reformed, but these uses are not always strictly applied.
Lutheranism cannot be defined or understood
without some reference to the personal experience and the biblical studies
of Luther, which came to voice in 1517 in his famous Ninety-five Theses for
debate over indulgences and in his attack on the theology and sacramental
practice of the late medieval church of the West. In 1521 Luther was
excommunicated; his followers accepted the designation "Lutheran"
in part against his will and in spite of the fact that it was filled, in
many instances, with implications of derision and sectarianism. The Lutheran
movement spread from the University of Wittenberg through much of Germany
and into Scandinavia, where it was established by law.
The theological vigour of Luther's
generation gave way to an arid orthodoxy in the late 16th and 17th
centuries. This in turn precipitated a pietist reaction that asserted the
need for living faith in addition to right doctrine (see Pietism
). The Pietists encouraged missionary and charitable work in
addition to devotional practice. Eighteenth-century Lutheranism was marked
by Rationalist influences. Orthodoxy was reasserted during the next century,
notably by the Danish bishop and poet N.F.S.
Grundtvig. Grundtvig's contemporary and countryman S©ªren
Kierkegaard criticized orthodoxy and the state church through a
highly personalized philosophy that was to form the basis of Existentialism.
(see also Index: Pietism)
In America,
Lutherans were among the earliest colonists to settle in New Netherland and
New Sweden (on the Delaware River), and they were followed by German
colonists who settled especially in the present Middle Atlantic states, the
Shenandoah Valley, Georgia, and Nova Scotia, Canada. Because of some
geographic and much linguistic isolation and because the majority of
American Protestantism was at first of Reformed background, Lutheranism did
not play a major role in shaping the early political and religious
complexion of the nation.
The geographic spread of Lutheranism in the
United States was extended by migrations to the western frontier and by the
large immigrations during the 19th and early 20th centuries of Germans,
Norwegians, Swedes, Danes, and Finns. Many of these immigrants settled in
the Midwest, and from there later pushed on to the far West. Since
immigrants brought with them from Europe a variety of languages and customs,
they organized in congregations and later synods according to their national
origins. It was largely the prolongation of linguistic and ethnic barriers
that prevented Lutheran union until well into the 20th century, when the
barriers broke down and advance into intra-Lutheran ecumenical relations
became rapid.
Lutheran doctrinal statements are usually
said to include nine separate formulations that together form the Book
of Concord. Three belong to the early Christian church--the
Apostles' Creed, the Nicene Creed in its western form, and the so-called
Athanasian Creed. Six derive from the 16th-century Reformation--the Augsburg
Confession, the Apology for the Augsburg Confession, the Schmalkald
Articles, Luther's two Catechisms, and the Formula
of Concord. Only the three early creeds and the Augsburg
Confession are recognized by all Lutherans. Luther's Catechisms have met
almost universal acceptance, but many Lutheran churches rejected the Formula
of Concord because of its strict and detailed doctrinal statements. The Augsburg
Confession and Luther's Small Catechism may properly be said to
define Lutheranism inclusively in its doctrinal aspect, though Lutherans may
be divided on many issues raised since the Augsburg Confession of 1530.
The largest and one of the oldest of
non-Roman Catholic, non-Orthodox families of Christians, Lutheranism is
represented in most areas of the world, but its particular geographic
orientation has been in northern and western Europe and in younger countries
settled by Germans and Scandinavians. It has been represented with less
strength in Switzerland, the Low Countries, and Scotland, where Reformed
confessions predominated, and it has been a secondary influence in the
British empire and the Commonwealth of Nations, where the Anglican communion
has prevailed. Because of early and persistent efforts of continental
missionary societies and later separate Lutheran denominations, Lutheranism
has been significantly represented in the mission fields and in the
formation of what were formerly called the younger churches.
Lutheranism acknowledges no world
headquarters, but the vast majority of the world's Lutherans cooperate in
the Lutheran World Federation, which has offices in Geneva.
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