3. MODERN SCHOOLS

• 3.1 Analytic and Linguistic philosophy
  • 3.1.1 GENERAL VIEWPOINT OF ANALYTIC PHILOSOPHY
    • 3.1.1.1 Nature, role, and method of analysis.
      • 3.1.1.1.1 Status of philosophy in the Empiricist tradition.
      • 3.1.1.1.2 Conceptual, linguistic, and scientific analysis.
      • 3.1.1.1.3 Therapeutic function of analysis.
    • 3.1.1.2 Formal versus ordinary language.
      • 3.1.1.2.1 Development of mathematical logic.
      • 3.1.1.2.2 Divergence of ordinary language from formal logic.
      • 3.1.1.2.3 Interpretations of the relation of logic to language.
  • 3.1.2 EARLY HISTORY OF ANALYTIC PHILOSOPHY
    • 3.1.2.1 Reaction against Idealism.
    • 3.1.2.2 Founding fathers: Moore and Russell.
      • 3.1.2.2.1 G.E. Moore.
      • 3.1.2.2.2 Bertrand Russell.
    • 3.1.2.3 Logical atomism: Russell and the early Wittgenstein.
    • 3.1.2.4 Logical Positivism: Carnap and Schlick.
  • 3.1.3 LATER HISTORY OF THE MOVEMENT
    • 3.1.3.1 "Philosophical Investigations": the later Wittgenstein.
      • 3.1.3.1.1 Language and following rules.
      • 3.1.3.1.2 Relation between mental and physical events.
    • 3.1.3.2 Recent trends in England.
      • 3.1.3.2.1 Wittgensteinians.
      • 3.1.3.2.2 Oxford philosophers.
    • 3.1.3.3 Recent trends in the United States.
    • 3.1.3.4 Analytic philosophy today.
• 3.2 Empiricism
  • 3.2.1 VARIOUS MEANINGS OF EMPIRICISM
    • 3.2.1.1 Broader senses.
    • 3.2.1.2 Stricter senses.
      • 3.2.1.2.1 Fundamental distinctions.
      • 3.2.1.2.2 Degrees of Empiricism.
  • 3.2.2 HISTORY OF EMPIRICISM
    • 3.2.2.1 In ancient philosophy.
    • 3.2.2.2 In medieval philosophy.
    • 3.2.2.3 In modern philosophy.
    • 3.2.2.4 In contemporary philosophy.
  • 3.2.3 CRITICISM AND EVALUATION
• 3.3 Existentialism
  • 3.3.1 NATURE OF EXISTENTIALIST THOUGHT AND MANNER
  • 3.3.2 HISTORICAL SURVEY OF EXISTENTIALISM
    • 3.3.2.1 Precursors of Existentialism.
    • 3.3.2.2 The immediate background and founding fathers.
    • 3.3.2.3 Emergence as a movement.
  • 3.3.3 METHODOLOGICAL ISSUES IN EXISTENTIALISM
  • 3.3.4 SUBSTANTIVE ISSUES IN EXISTENTIALISM
    • 3.3.4.1 Fundamental concepts and contrasts.
      • 3.3.4.1.1 Ontic structure of human existence.
      • 3.3.4.1.2 Manner and style of human existence.
    • 3.3.4.2 Problems of Existentialist philosophy.
      • 3.3.4.2.1 Man and human relationships.
      • 3.3.4.2.2 The human situation in the world.
      • 3.3.4.2.3 Significance of Being and transcendence.
    • 3.3.4.3 Problems of Existentialist theology.
  • 3.3.5 SOCIAL AND HISTORICAL PROJECTIONS OF EXISTENTIALISM
• 3.4 Idealism
  • 3.4.1 APPROACHES TO UNDERSTANDING IDEALISM
    • 3.4.1.1 Basic doctrines and principles.
      • 3.4.1.1.1 The union of individuality and universality.
      • 3.4.1.1.2 The contrast between contemporaneity and eternity.
      • 3.4.1.1.3 The doctrine of internal relations and the coherence theory of truth.
      • 3.4.1.1.4 The dialectical method.
      • 3.4.1.1.5 The centrality of mind in knowledge and being.
      • 3.4.1.1.6 The transmutation of evil into good.
    • 3.4.1.2 Basic questions and answers.
      • 3.4.1.2.1 Ultimate reality.
      • 3.4.1.2.2 The given.
      • 3.4.1.2.3 Change.
    • 3.4.1.3 Basic arguments.
      • 3.4.1.3.1 The esse est percipi (to be is to be perceived) argument of Berkeley.
      • 3.4.1.3.2 The reciprocity argument.
      • 3.4.1.3.3 The mystical argument.
      • 3.4.1.3.4 The ontological argument.
  • 3.4.2 TYPES OF PHILOSOPHICAL IDEALISM
    • 3.4.2.1 Types classed by culture.
      • 3.4.2.1.1 Western types.
      • 3.4.2.1.2 Eastern types.
    • 3.4.2.2 Types classed by branches of philosophy.
  • 3.4.3 CRITICISM AND APPRAISAL
• 3.5 Materialism
  • 3.5.1 TYPES OF MATERIALIST THEORY
    • 3.5.1.1 Types distinguished by departures from the paradigm.
    • 3.5.1.2 Type distinguished by its view of history.
    • 3.5.1.3 Types distinguished by their account of mind.
  • 3.5.2 HISTORY OF MATERIALISM
    • 3.5.2.1 Greek and Roman Materialism.
    • 3.5.2.2 Modern Materialism.
    • 3.5.2.3 Contemporary Materialism.
      • 3.5.2.3.1 Translation central-state theories.
      • 3.5.2.3.2 Disappearance central-state theories.
    • 3.5.2.4 Eastern Materialism.
  • 3.5.3 SUBSTANTIVE ISSUES IN MATERIALISM
    • 3.5.3.1 Reductionism, consciousness, and brain.
    • 3.5.3.2 Logic, intentionality, and psychical research.
• 3.6 Phenomenology
  • 3.6.1 CHARACTERISTICS OF PHENOMENOLOGY
    • 3.6.1.1 Essential features and variations.
    • 3.6.1.2 Contrasts with related movements.
  • 3.6.2 ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF HUSSERL'S PHENOMENOLOGY
    • 3.6.2.1 Basic principles.
    • 3.6.2.2 Basic method.
    • 3.6.2.3 Basic concepts.
  • 3.6.3 LATER DEVELOPMENTS
    • 3.6.3.1 Phenomenology of essences.
    • 3.6.3.2 Heidegger's hermeneutic Phenomenology.
    • 3.6.3.3 Other developments.
  • 3.6.4 DISSEMINATION OF PHENOMENOLOGY
    • 3.6.4.1 Phenomenology in various countries.
      • 3.6.4.1.1 In France.
      • 3.6.4.1.2 In Germany.
      • 3.6.4.1.3 In other European countries.
      • 3.6.4.1.4 In the United States.
    • 3.6.4.2 Phenomenology in other disciplines.
  • 3.6.5 CONCLUSION
• 3.7 Positivism and Logical Empiricism
  • 3.7.1 THE SOCIAL POSITIVISM OF COMTE AND MILL
  • 3.7.2 THE CRITICAL POSITIVISM OF MACH AND AVENARIUS
  • 3.7.3 LOGICAL POSITIVISM AND LOGICAL EMPIRICISM
    • 3.7.3.1 The earlier Positivism of Viennese heritage.
      • 3.7.3.1.1 Language and the clarification of meaning.
      • 3.7.3.1.2 The verifiability criterion of meaning and its offshoots.
      • 3.7.3.1.3 Other issues.
    • 3.7.3.2 The later Positivism of Logical Empiricism.
      • 3.7.3.2.1 The status of the formal and a priori.
      • 3.7.3.2.2 Developments in Linguistic Analysis and their offshoots.
  • 3.7.4 CURRENT CRITICISMS AND CONTROVERSIES
• 3.8 Pragmatism
  • 3.8.1 MAJOR THESES OF PHILOSOPHIC PRAGMATISM
  • 3.8.2 HISTORY OF PRAGMATISM
    • 3.8.2.1 Antecedents in modern philosophy.
    • 3.8.2.2 The Metaphysical Club.
    • 3.8.2.3 The classical Pragmatists.
    • 3.8.2.4 Other American Pragmatists.
    • 3.8.2.5 Pragmatism in Europe.
    • 3.8.2.6 Later tendencies.
  • 3.8.3 EVALUATION OF PRAGMATISM
• 3.9 Rationalism
  • 3.9.1 TYPES AND EXPRESSIONS OF RATIONALISM
  • 3.9.2 HISTORY OF RATIONALISM
    • 3.9.2.1 Epistemological Rationalism in ancient philosophies.
    • 3.9.2.2 Epistemological Rationalism in modern philosophies.
    • 3.9.2.3 Ethical Rationalism.
    • 3.9.2.4 Religious Rationalism.
      • 3.9.2.4.1 Expansion of religious Rationalism.
      • 3.9.2.4.2 Four waves of religious Rationalism.
  • 3.9.3 STATUS OF RATIONALISM
    • 3.9.3.1 Religious.
    • 3.9.3.2 Ethical.
    • 3.9.3.3 Metaphysical.
    • 3.9.3.4 Challenges to epistemological Rationalism.
• 3.10 Utilitarianism
  • 3.10.1 THE NATURE OF UTILITARIANISM
    • 3.10.1.1 Basic concepts.
    • 3.10.1.2 Methodologies.
    • 3.10.1.3 Criticisms.
  • 3.10.2 HISTORICAL SURVEY
    • 3.10.2.1 Antecedents of Utilitarianism among the ancients.
    • 3.10.2.2 Growth of classical English Utilitarianism.
    • 3.10.2.3 Late 19th- and 20th-century Utilitarianism.
  • 3.10.3 EFFECTS OF UTILITARIANISM IN OTHER FIELDS
  • 3.10.4 SUMMARY AND EVALUATION