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Socialism
refers to both a set of doctrines and the political movements that aspire to
put these doctrines into practice. Although doctrinal aspects loomed largest
in the early history of socialism, in its later history the movements have
predominated over doctrine, so much so that there is no precise canon on which
the various adherents of contemporary socialist movements agree. The most that
can be said is that socialism is, in the words of Anthony Crosland, a British
socialist, "a set of values, or aspirations, which socialists wish to see
embodied in the organization of society."
Although it is possible to trace
adumbrations of modern socialist ideas as far back as Plato's Republic,
Thomas More's Utopia,
and the profuse Utopian literature of the 18th-century Enlightenment,
realistically, modern socialism had its roots in the reflections of various
writers who opposed the social and economic relations and dislocations brought
by the Industrial Revolution. They criticized
what they conceived to be the injustice, the inequalities, the suffering
brought about by the capitalist mode of
production and the free and uncontrolled market on which it rested. To the
acquisitive individualism of their age they opposed a vision of a new
community of producers bound to each other through fraternal solidarity. They
conceived of a future in which the masses would wrest control of the means of
production and the levers of government from the capitalists. (see also
"Republic, The," )
Although the great majority of men
calling themselves socialists in the 19th and 20th centuries have shared this
vision, they have disagreed about its more specific ideas. Some of them have
argued that only the complete nationalization of the means of production would
suffice to implement their aims. Others have proposed selective
nationalization of key industries, with controlled private ownership of the
remainder. Some socialists insist that only strong centralized state direction
and a command economy will suffice. Others advocate a "market
socialism" in which the market economy would be directed and guided by
socialist planners.
Socialists have also disagreed as to
the best way of running the good society. Some envisage direction by the
government. Others advocate as much dispersion and decentralization as
possible through the delegation of decision-making authority to public boards,
quasi-public trusts, municipalities, or self-governing communities of
producers. Some advocate workers' control; others would rely on governmental
planning boards. Although all socialists want to bring about a more equal
distribution of national income, some hope for an absolute equality of income,
whereas others aim only at ensuring an adequate income for all, while allowing
different occupations to be paid at different rates.
"To each according to his
need" has been a frequent battle cry of socialists, but many of them
would in fact settle for a society in which each would be paid in accordance
with his contribution to the commonwealth, provided that society would first
assure all citizens minimum levels of housing, clothing, and nourishment as
well as free access to essential services such as education, health,
transportation, and recreation.
Socialists also proclaim the need for
more equal political rights for all citizens, and for a levelling of status
differences. They disagree, however, on whether difference of status ought to
be eradicated entirely, or whether, in practice, some inequality in
decision-making powers might not be permitted to persist in a socialist
commonwealth.
The uses and abuses of the word
socialism are legion. As early as 1845, Friedrich Engels complained that the
socialism of many Germans was "vague, undefined, and undefinable."
Since Engels' day the term socialism has been the property of anyone who
wished to use it. The same Bismarck who as German chancellor in the late 1870s
outlawed any organization that advocated socialism in Germany declared a few
years later that "the state must introduce even more socialism in our
Reich." Modern sophisticated conservatives, as well as Fascists and
various totalitarian dictators, have often claimed that they were engaged in
building socialism.
The term socialism, in its modern
sense, made its first appearance around 1830. In France it was applied to the
writings of Fourier and the Saint-Simonians and in Britain to those of Robert
Owen.
Comte Henri de
Saint-Simon (1760-1825) was an erratic genius with a
fertile and yet disorganized mind. His socialist writings revolved around the
idea that his age suffered from an unhealthy and unbridled individualism
resulting from a breakdown of order and hierarchy. But he held that the age
also contained the seeds of its own salvation, which were to be found in the
rising level of science and technology and in the industrialists and
technicians who had already begun to build a new industrial order. The joining
of scientific and technological knowledge to industrialism would inaugurate
the rule of experts. The new society could not be equalitarian, Saint-Simon
argued, because men were not equally endowed by nature. Yet it would make the
maximum use of potential abilities by assuring that everyone would have equal
opportunity to rise to a social position commensurate with his talents. By
eradicating the sources of public disorder, it would make possible the virtual
elimination of the state as a coercive institution. The future society would
be run like a gigantic workshop, in which rule over men would be replaced by
the administration of things.
Saint-Simon's followers bent the
founder's doctrine in a more definitely socialist direction. They came to see
private property as incompatible with the new industrial system. The
hereditary transmission of power and property, they argued, was inimical to
the rational ordering of society. The rather bizarre attempt of Saint-Simon's
followers to create a Saint-Simonian church should not obscure the fact that
they were among the first to proclaim that bourgeois-capitalist property was
no longer sacrosanct.
François-Marie-Charles
Fourier (1772-1837), a lonely and neglected thinker
who was more than a little mad, was led to his anticapitalist vision by a
loathing for a world of competition and wasteful commerce in which he spent
most of his life as a salesman. Possessed by an inordinately wide-ranging
imagination, he argued that the regenerated world to come would be
characterized not only by social but also by natural and even cosmological
transformations. The ocean would be changed into lemonade, and wild animals
would turn into anti-lions and anti-tigers serving mankind.
With meticulous and obsessive care,
Fourier set forth plans for his model communities, the phalanstères, the germ cells
of the good society of the future. In these communities men would no longer be
forced to perform uncongenial tasks but would work in tune with their
temperaments and inclinations. They would cultivate cabbages in the morning
and sing in the opera in the evening. Fourier's was an antinomian vision in
which human spontaneity made outside regulation unnecessary. Whereas
Saint-Simon called for the rule of experts, Fourier was convinced that love
and passion would bind men together in a harmonious and noncoercive order.
The Welshman Robert Owen (1771-1858)
held more sober views. Early in his career he became known as a model employer
in his textile works in Scotland, and as an educational and factory reformer.
Despairing of his fellow capitalists he later turned to the emergent trade
union movement. Acutely conscious of the evils of industrialism by which he
had acquired his wealth, he thought that the new productive forces could be
turned to the benefit of mankind if competition were eliminated and the
effects of bad education were counteracted by rational enlightenment. He
advocated cooperative control of industry and the creation of Villages of
Unity and Cooperation in which the settlers, in addition to raising crops,
would improve their physiques as well as their minds. Owenite communities
established in New Harmony, Indiana, and
elsewhere in America all failed. His attempts to join the cooperative and the
trade union movements in a "great trades union" also proved a
failure. Yet he left a lasting imprint on the British socialist tradition; his
indictment of the competitive order, his stress on cooperation and education,
his optimistic message that men could increase their stature if only the
stultifying effects of an unhealthy environment were removed have continued to
inform the socialist movement.
The 1840s saw the rise of a number of
other socialist doctrines, particularly in France.
Louis-Auguste Blanqui evolved a radical
socialist--or, as he called it, communist--doctrine based on a democratic
populism and on the belief that capitalism as an inherently unstable order
would soon be replaced by cooperative associations. Impatient with theorizing,
given to a strong belief in voluntarism and the virtues of revolutionary
action, he is remembered for his many attempts at organizing insurrections
rather than for his theoretical contributions.
Étienne
Cabet, in his influential utopian work Voyage en Icarie (1840), carried on the tradition of Thomas More as
well as of Fourier. Louis Blanc is best known
for L'
Organisation du travail (1839), in which he advocated the
establishment of national workshops with capital advanced by the government.
These workshops would remain free from government control, with workers
electing their management. The national workshops he organized in Paris after
the revolution of 1848 were soon dissolved by a resurgent middle class. His
plans for the "organization of labour" and his pleas for the
recognition of the "right to work" were nevertheless a foreshadowing
of the modern welfare state.
Pierre-Joseph
Proudhon (1809-65) is best viewed as one of the
founders of the anarchist tradition. But his attacks against private property
and the institutions on which it rests, as well as his championing of a system
of human relationships in which reciprocity, equity, and justice would replace
what he saw to be rapacity, exploitation, and greed, powerfully stimulated the
socialist imagination. His anti-statist and federalist vision of producers'
communities provided a counterweight to the centralizing and statist impulses
in the socialist tradition.
In England, the first half of the 19th
century saw the emergence of a number of writers attacking the inequities of
capitalism and basing their indictment of wage labour on radical
interpretations of the thinking of an eminent economist, David Ricardo.
Somewhat later, a Christian socialist movement led by Frederick
Denison Maurice and Charles Kingsley
attempted to combine radical economic views with political conservatism. The
radical Chartist Movement of the 1830s and 1840s is better viewed as a
political movement of the working class than as a specifically socialist
formation, though anticapitalist ideas played a strong part in it. (see also
United Kingdom, Chartism)
In the perspective of intellectual
history, all of these pre- Marxist socialist thinkers produced ideas of
considerable intrinsic worth. But from the viewpoint of the subsequent
development of socialism their ideas seem to be tributaries feeding the mighty
stream of the Marxist movement that came to dominate the socialist tradition
in the last third of the 19th century. (see also
Marxism)
Karl Marx
(1818-83) had a synthesizing mind. He fused German idealistic philosophy with
British political economy and French socialism. Marx's earlier writings are
discussed elsewhere (see MARXISM). In this section the focus is on his mature
thought as first developed in The
Communist Manifesto (1848), which he wrote in conjunction with Friedrich
Engels, his lifelong intellectual companion.
To Marx, society is a moving balance
of antithetical forces; strife is the father of all things, and social
conflict is the core of the historical process. Men struggle against nature to
wrest a livelihood from her. In the process they enter into relations with one
another, and these relations differ according to the stage they have reached
in their productive activities. As a division of
labour emerges in human society, it leads to the formation of
antagonistic classes that are the prime actors in the historical drama. In
contrast to his predecessors, Marx did not see history as simply a struggle
between the rich and the poor, or the powerful and the powerless; he taught
that such struggles differ qualitatively depending on what particular
historical classes emerge at a given stage in history. A class is defined by
Marx as a grouping of men who share a common position in the productive
process and develop a common outlook and a realization of their mutual
interest.
Marx, like Hegel and Montesquieu,
considered societies as structured wholes; all aspects of a society--its legal
code, its system of education, its religion, its art--are related with one
another and with the mode of economic production. But he differed from other
thinkers in emphasizing that the mode of production was, in the last analysis,
the decisive factor in the movement of history. The relations of production,
he held, constitute the foundation upon which is erected the whole cultural
superstructure of society.
Marx distinguished this doctrine,
which he called scientific socialism, from that of his predecessors whom he
labelled utopian socialists. He asserted that his teachings were based on a
scientific examination of the movement of history and the workings of
contemporary capitalism rather than simply on idealistic striving for human
betterment. He claimed to have provided a guide to past history as well as a
scientific prediction of the future. History was shaped by class struggles;
the struggle of contemporary proletarians against their capitalist taskmasters
would eventuate in a socialist society in which associated producers would
mold their collective destinies cooperatively, free from economic and social
constraints. The class struggle would thus come to an end. (see also
history, philosophy of)
The
Communist Manifesto, which had been written as a
program for the Communist League, a group of continental workmen, failed to
have an impact on the European revolutions of 1848. For a number of years
thereafter Marx and Engels lived in complete isolation from the labour
movements developing in England and on the Continent. Socialism in those years
was only the creed of isolated sects, often of exiles. In 1864, however, after
a gathering in London of continental and English workers' representatives and
associated intellectuals, there emerged the International Working Men's
Association, commonly known as the First International. Although it
encompassed various tendencies ranging from simple trade unionism to
anarchism, Marx dominated it from its inception and made it an instrument for
the diffusion of his message. Its headquarters were in London, but it never
exerted much influence in England, where the labour movement remained
impervious to Marxist revolutionary ideology. On the Continent, particularly
in Germany, Marxism spread rapidly and soon
became the major doctrine of the emerging labour movement.
In Germany, Ferdinand
Lassalle (1825-64), the architect of the German labour movement, agreed
with Marx on the need for autonomous organization of the working class but
differed from him in wanting the government to provide the necessary capital
for the establishment of producers' cooperatives that would emancipate labour
from capitalist domination. To Marx, any appeal to the bourgeois state was out
of the question, and he proceeded to organize followers in Germany against
Lassalle. In 1869 they created the Social Democratic
Party. The division between the followers of Lassalle and those of Marx
persisted until 1875, when the two parties united on the basis of a compromise
program (which Marx sharply criticized for its Lassallean vestiges).
The German Social Democratic movement
grew rapidly, despite Chancellor Otto von Bismarck's
attempts to suppress it through anti-socialist legislation and to undercut its
appeal by social reforms. In 1877 the Socialists obtained half a million votes
and a dozen members in the Reichstag. In 1881 the party claimed 312,000
members, and, by 1890, 1,427,000. After the repeal of the anti-socialist laws
the party adopted the so-called Erfurt Program
of 1891, eliminating all demands for Lassallean state-aided enterprises and
pledging itself to the orthodox Marxian goal of "the abolition of class
rule and of classes themselves."
It soon became apparent that Marx's
own thought had gone through a process of evolution so that different
disciples could quote chapter and verse in support of fairly divergent
political views. In particular, whereas Marx in the late 1840s and early 1850s
had asserted that only a violent revolutionary overthrow of bourgeois rule and
the emergence of the "dictatorship of the proletariat" would lead to
the emancipation of the working class, by the late 1860s his views had
considerably mellowed. Writing in England after the second Reform Bill (1867),
which had given the vote to the upper strata of the workers, Marx suggested
the possibility of a peaceful British evolution toward socialism. He also
thought that such a peaceful road might be possible in the United States and
in a number of other countries.
Although the leaders of German Social
Democracy liked to speak in revolutionary Marxist rhetoric, they had in daily
life become increasingly absorbed in parliamentary activities. Under the
intellectual guidance of their theoretician Karl
Kautsky (1854-1938) they developed a brand of economic determinism
according to which the inevitable development of economic forces would
necessarily lead to the emergence of socialism. The official Social Democratic
platform remained ideologically intransigent, while the party's activities
became increasingly pragmatic.
Eduard Bernstein
(1850-1932), once a close companion of Engels, challenging prevailing
orthodoxy in his famous Die
Voraussetzungen des Sozialismus und die Aufgaben der Sozialdemokratie (1899;
Eng. trans., Evolutionary
Socialism, 1909), appealed to the party to drop its revolutionary
baggage and recognize theoretically what it had already accepted in practice:
namely, that Germany would not have to go through revolutionary convulsions in
order to reach socialist goals. Ignoring the differences between political
conditions in Germany and England, Bernstein urged the party to travel along
the English road in hope of gradually transforming capitalism through
socialist reforms brought about by parliamentary pressure.
The struggle between Kautsky's
orthodoxy and Bernstein's revisionism shook the German party. Bernsteinian
doctrine was officially defeated in 1903, but revisionism in fact permeated
the party, especially its parliamentary and trade union leaders. At the
outbreak of World War I practically all the leaders supported the government
and the war, thus ending the party's revolutionary pretensions.
In France, the Marxists had to contend
with rival socialist traditions that had profound roots in French
working-class history. The followers of Blanqui and Proudhon played leading
roles in the Paris Commune of 1871. In the years that followed, French
socialism was torn by conflicting tendencies. The Parti
Ouvrier founded by Jules Guesde in 1875-76 represented Marxist
orthodoxy, but there were other socialist parties that reflected the influence
of Blanqui, Blanc, and Proudhon, as well as the 18th-century revolutionary
heritage. Even after the various parties amalgamated in 1905, the movement
continued to be torn by dissension between its revolutionary and reformist
wings. Nonetheless, it continued to grow. At its first congress the unified
party claimed 35,000 members, and in the elections of 1906 it won 54 seats in
Parliament. By 1914 it had more than 100 members in the Chamber of Deputies.
As in Germany, however, revolutionary rhetoric usually went hand in hand with
pragmatic action, and the party became in fact a skillful participant in the
parliamentary games of the Third Republic. After Jean
Jaurès, the great Socialist orator and a principled leader of
the peace elements, was assassinated on the eve of World War I, most of the
Socialists supported the French war effort.
In the last part of the 19th century,
Social Democratic parties generally beholden to Marxist doctrine sprang up in
most of the countries of continental Europe. A Danish Social Democratic Party
was founded in the 1870s, the Swedish Socialist movement in 1889. The Norwegian
Labour Party (first called the Social Democratic Party) was formed in
1887 but became a major political force only in the early 20th century. In
central Europe, Social Democratic parties fairly rapidly assumed a major place
on the political horizon. An Austrian Social
Democratic Party was founded in 1888. By 1908 it had gained about
one-third of the vote cast in the parliamentary elections, to become the
strongest Socialist party outside Germany. The Belgian Labour Party, formed in
1885 as an amalgamation of trade union, cooperative, and other groups, rapidly
organized thousands of mutual aid societies, built a very strong trade union
movement, and led a number of general strikes on behalf of more liberal
suffrage laws. The Dutch Socialist-Democratic Workers Party, founded in 1894,
became a significant force only in the years immediately preceding World War
I. It held 20 percent of the seats in the lower house of Parliament in 1912.
All of the continental parties were
torn by internal tensions. Proposals to enter liberal coalition governments
often were defeated by only narrow margins; Marxist orthodoxy prevailed only
after sharp struggles. In The Netherlands, for example, a proposal to enter a
coalition government was rejected by the close vote of 375 to 320 at the party
congress of 1913.
In the less industrialized parts of
Europe, particularly in Italy and Spain, Marxism had to contend with anarchist
tendencies mainly rooted in the precapitalist and peasant strata. European
anarchism as a political force was created by Mikhail
Bakunin, the highly influential Russian libertarian thinker. His
Anarchist Federation had belonged to the First International, but quarrels
with Marx led to the expulsion of Bakunin and his followers in 1872.
Bakuninist and other anarchist strains
of thought remained powerful in Spain, despite
the founding of the Social Labour Party in 1879. The Spanish socialist
movement suffered from the competition of the anarchists throughout its
subsequent history, and only after World War I did it become a political force
to be reckoned with.
In Italy
anarchist tendencies also impeded the growth of a socialist movement. The
Italian representatives to the First International followed Bakunin's lead.
Not until 1892 was a distinctly Socialist party formed under the leadership of
Filippo Turati. In 1913, after the electoral
franchise was broadened, the official Socialist Party secured 51 seats in
Parliament, and two other Socialist parties that had split from its ranks
gained 31 seats. Although it continued to suffer from internal dissension and
from anarchist tendencies in the more backward areas of the country, by World
War I the Italian Socialist Party had become
one of the strongest Marxist organizations in Europe.
The First International had brought
into being a variety of Socialist movements throughout Europe. When these
began to grow roots in their respective political systems, it became apparent
that the international movement could no longer be controlled by a single
directing centre. After the dissolution of the First International in 1876,
Marx and Engels remained father figures whose counsel the movement eagerly
sought; but they could no longer direct it. The history of socialism now
became largely the history of separate national movements that, for all their
ceremonial acknowledgment of Marxist orthodoxy, increasingly tended toward a
revisionist and nonrevolutionary line. By the early years of the 20th century
socialism had become a powerful parliamentary force in most European
countries. Except in Russia, where autocracy still held sway, the Socialists
were reformers seeking a transformation of the existing system rather than its
violent overthrow. Only left-wing minorities within the various parties still
stood for revolutionary orthodoxy.
The Second International, founded in
1889, reflected the changed character of the movement. It was a kind of
international parliament of socialist movements rather than the unified and
doctrinally pure organization that the First International had attempted to
be. It was dominated by the German party. With traditional Marxist rhetoric,
the German delegates stood adamant against proposals to sanction socialist
participation in bourgeois governments, and thus appeared to favour a
"left" course. But socialist participation in government was not a
realistic option in Kaiser William's Germany, and so the German delegates
could be intransigent at no cost to themselves. When the issue was put to a
vote at the Amsterdam congress in 1904, the Germans sided with those who
opposed participation, against Jaurès
and those who condoned it. But Jaurès had the better of it when he
pointed out that "behind the inflexibility of theoretical formulas which
your excellent comrade Kautsky will supply you with till the end of his days,
you concealed . . . your inability to act." As with the issue of
government participation, so with the issue of war. The Second International,
under its German leadership, issued many moving and stirring manifestoes
against war, but when war broke out it disclosed its paralysis. Most of its
national components sided with their own governments and abandoned the idea of
international working-class solidarity. Almost all of them recognized what
they may secretly have believed for a long time: the workers, after all, had a
fatherland.
Although Marxism triumphed in the
continental Socialist movement, it did not do so in Great Britain. Henry
Hyndman, a radical journalist, founded the Social Democratic Federation on
strictly Marxist principles in the 1880s, but it ever remained marginal to the
British socialist movement. The Socialist League, founded by the poet William
Morris, propounded libertarian-syndicalist ideas and likewise failed to make
headway. Fabian socialism, on the other hand, based on non-Marxist ideas, was
to have an enduring influence in Britain.
The Fabian
Society was organized in the 1880s by a number of young radical
intellectuals among whom Sidney and Beatrice Webb, Graham Wallas, Sidney
Olivier, and George Bernard Shaw were the most outstanding. It developed an
evolutionary and moderate form of socialism. Convinced of "the
inevitability of gradualness," the Fabians never endeavoured to become a
mass organization but preferred to be a ginger group of intellectuals working
to transform society through practical and unobtrusive advice to the men of
power. The extremely influential Fabian
Essays (begun in 1889) contained detailed blueprints for social
legislation and reform that influenced policymakers whether they were
socialists or not. Through "permeation," which Shaw defined as
"wire-pulling the government in order to get socialist measures
passed," the Fabians attempted to convince key politicians, civil
servants, trade union officials, and local decision makers of the need for
planned and constructive reform legislation. Basing their doctrine at least as
much on non-Marxist economics as on the continental socialist tradition, they
worked for a new order "without breach of continuity or abrupt change of
the entire social tissue."
The syndicalist movement grew out of
French trade unionism when it was reconstituted after the bloodletting of the
Paris Commune (1871). Convinced of the futility of parliamentary and political
activity, the syndicalists stressed that only direct action by workers
organized in their unions would bring about the desired socialist
transformation. Under the leadership of Fernand Pelloutier the Fédération
des Bourses du Travail (founded in 1892), which was later amalgamated
with the Confédération Générale du Travail (1902),
was built on the idea that the emancipation of labour would come through a
"general strike" that would paralyze the country and deliver power
into the hands of organized workers. The unions would become the directing and
administering nuclear cells of production.
The syndicalists attracted a number of
intellectuals to their ranks, who attempted to provide a philosophical basis
for syndicalism and its rejection of the political road to socialism. The most
important of their writings, Georges Sorel's Réflexions
sur la violence (1908; Eng. trans., Reflections
on Violence, 1916), has continued to exercise considerable
influence on the thinking of revolutionary militants, even though Sorel
himself soon shifted his allegiance to the extreme right.
The guild
socialist tradition developed in Britain in the years before World War
I. Sharing the general socialist hostility to the wage system and production
for profit, guild socialists took from the syndicalists their distrust of the
state and their emphasis on producers' control. They looked back to the Middle
Ages when independent producers, organized in guilds, controlled the
conditions of their employment and took pride in creative work. Aiming at
self-government in industry, guild socialists urged that industrial
organizations, churches, trade unions, cooperative societies, and
municipalities be granted autonomy. They argued that every group in society
should carry out its particular functions without control from above, and that
individuals should have a say in the direction of all those functional units
in which they happened to be interested. Cooperation between functional units
would replace direction by the state, which would be restricted to providing
needed national services such as police protection. The state would be a
functional unit among many others, rather than an all-encompassing sovereign.
Although guild socialism owes its
origin to several thinkers, it grew into a mature doctrine only when in 1913
it recruited G.D.H. Cole, a brilliant Oxford don, two of whose early books, The
World of Labour (1913) and Self-Government
in Industry (1917), contain the best exposition of guild socialist
doctrine. The movement never attained wide popular appeal but has continued to
be a source of ideas in the British labour movement, if only as a counterpoint
to the bureaucratic and centralizing tendencies of Fabianism.
Socialism never became as influential
in the United States as it did in Europe. When
the Socialist Party was formed in 1901 it claimed a membership of 10,000 that
grew to 150,000 in 1912, in which year the party polled a presidential vote of
897,000, or 6 percent of the national total. Although its strongest roots were
among recent immigrants from Europe, it also drew its inspiration from the
utopian colonies of the 19th century, from the slavery abolitionists, trade
unionists, and agrarian reformers, and from isolated socialist groups of the
1880s and 1890s.
The Socialist
Labor Party, a predecessor of the Socialist
Party, was formed in 1877 but acquired a distinct outlook only when the
journalist and polemicist Daniel De Leon
joined it in 1890. De Leon attempted to marry a doctrinaire brand of Marxism
to a "labourism" nourished in part on French syndicalist doctrine.
He and his followers wished to raise the membership of the unions above
"paltry routine business" and prepare them for a successful contest
with the power of capital, both at the ballot box and in industrial combat.
The Socialist Labor Party remained a
sect. But the Socialist Party developed into a mass movement under the
leadership of Eugene Debs, a former union
official who had been converted to socialism by reading the works of various
socialist writers while in jail. The Socialist Party of Debs was neither
centralized nor politically homogeneous. In its ranks it harboured reformists
and revolutionaries, orthodox Marxists, Christian ministers, municipal
reformers, populists who hated the railroads and the trusts, and Jewish
garment workers dreaming of fraternity in the sweatshops. It produced no major
theoretical works, but it managed in its undoctrinaire way to be an effective
voice for the idea of socialism in America. It declined after World War I, its
last well-known leader being Norman Thomas.
The dominant radical tendency in
19th-century Russia was populism, a doctrine
first developed by the author and editor Aleksandr
Herzen, who saw in the peasant communes the embryo of a future
socialist society and argued that Russian socialism might skip the stage of
capitalism and build a cooperative commonwealth based on ancient peasant
tradition. Herzen idealized the peasantry. His disciples inspired many
students and intellectuals to "go to the people" in order to stir
them into revolutionary action.
In the 1860s and 1870s, the more
radical populists lost their faith in a peasant revolt and turned instead to
terrorism. Small groups of student revolutionaries sought to bring down
tsarism through terroristic action; their efforts culminated in the
assassination of Alexander II in 1881. Sergey
Nechayev's Revolutionary
Catechism, in the writing of which Bakunin had a hand, stressed that the
sole aim of the revolutionary is to destroy "every established object
root and branch, [to] annihilate all state traditions, orders and classes in
Russia." It is one of the ironies of history that Bakunin helped create
in Russia an elitist and terrorist movement composed almost exclusively of
alienated intellectuals, while in western Europe he appealed to skilled
craftsmen and peasants and appeared to be the heir of Proudhon.
Within the broad stream of populism,
terrorism was opposed by an evolutionary socialism that put its faith in
peaceful propaganda and the education of the masses. While the elitists
pursued their campaign of terror, the gradualists stuck to propaganda among
the people.
The father of Russian Marxism was Georgy
Plekhanov, who began his socialist career as a populist and was
converted to Marxism when he settled in Geneva in 1880; in 1883 he founded the
first Russian Marxist organization, the Osvobozhdenie Truda (Liberation
of Labour Group). Plekhanov thought Russian socialism ought to be based
primarily on the growing factory proletariat. Rejecting Herzen's idea that
Russia was exceptional, he held that the revolution would be European in
character and that Russia's place in it would be determined by its own labour
movement. In a variety of books and pamphlets in the 1880s and 1890s,
Plekhanov attacked the populists and argued that Marx had shown the objective
historical necessity of socialism. The laws of social evolution could not be
flouted. A bourgeois revolution in Russia was inevitable in the course of
industrial development. The organized working class would know how to take
advantage of the bourgeois revolution and push it forward.
Against this German brand of Marxism,
Vladimir Ilich Ulyanov (1870-1924), later to be known by his party name of Lenin,
argued for a more militant approach to revolution. In What
Is To Be Done? (1902) he formulated his characteristic doctrine.
Socialism would be achieved only when professional revolutionaries succeeded
in mobilizing and energizing the masses of workers and peasants. Left to
themselves, the workers would get no farther than a trade union consciousness.
A militant, disciplined, uncompromising organization of revolutionaries was
needed to propel the masses into action.
Lenin's followers parted company with
the other Russian Marxists at the second congress of the (illegal) Russian
Social Democratic Workers Party held in London in 1903. The
anti-Leninist position was formulated by the leader of the more orthodox
Marxists, L. Martov, when he declared,
"In our eyes, the labour party is not limited to an organization of
professional revolutionaries. It consists of them, plus the entire combination
of the active, leading elements of the proletariat . . . ."
The two factions within the Russian
Social Democratic movement at first cooperated and even held joint meetings;
the final split came only in 1912. Individual leaders switched from one
faction to another (Plekhanov, who originally sided with Lenin, joined his
opponents in 1904). Others, such as Leon Trotsky,
attempted for a time to stay free from factional alignments. These disputes
were fought out in the West, where most of the leaders of both sides lived as
émigrés. Within Russia itself,
however, Lenin's opponents (the Mensheviks)
mainly attracted the better educated and skilled workers, as well as the
Jewish intelligentsia, while his Bolsheviks
tended to be most successful among the more backward strata of the working
class.
After the February Revolution of 1917
toppled the tsarist regime and installed a liberal and vaguely socialistic
leadership, the Bolsheviks managed to extend their organization among the
urban masses. When Lenin returned from exile in April 1917, he startled his
followers by calling for an entirely new strategy. Previously they had
believed that their immediate task was to work within the limits of a
democratic republic while preparing for future revolutionary opportunities.
Lenin argued instead that they must seek power at once. The desire of the
masses for an immediate end to the war, the land hunger of the peasantry, the
feebleness of the new regime, he urged, made possible what had not been
possible in the abortive revolution of 1905: a socialist revolution led by
Bolshevik cadres. Moreover, Lenin argued, a Russian
revolution would not be isolated for it would soon be followed by a German
revolution.
The soviets (workers' and peasants'
councils), which had sprung up spontaneously when the tsarist power collapsed,
were the main organizational bases from which the Bolsheviks mounted their
assault on the established order. Lenin's slogan "All power to the
soviets" found a ready response in the major urban centres. In September
1917 the Bolsheviks won elections for the Moscow and St. Petersburg soviets.
These now became centres of "dual power" challenging the official
government. It was the St. Petersburg soviet that in October 1917 gave Trotsky
the military instrument with which he was able to topple the provisional
government and install a revolutionary regime headed by Lenin.
The Bolshevik seizure of power had
been undertaken in the belief that the revolution would soon spread to the
rest of Europe. Lenin's perspective had always been internationalist. When
most of the socialist leaders of the Second International rallied to their
national governments in 1914, Lenin denounced them as traitors to the cause
and sought to lay the groundwork for a new organization of revolutionary
Socialists. After their seizure of power, the Bolsheviks resolved to create a Third
International. By the time the delegates had assembled in Moscow in
1919, a revolutionary uprising in Berlin had been crushed and its leaders
murdered. The great majority of the German working class was evidently willing
to give the Social Democratic leadership of the new German republic a chance.
But to the Russian leaders' world revolution still seemed near. Soon after the
first congress of the Third International a short-lived soviet republic was
proclaimed in Hungary and another in the German state of Bavaria. Communist
parties began to be organized in all the major countries of Europe.
When the so-called Communist
International (Comintern) met for its second world congress in July 1920, it
was no longer a small gathering of individuals or representatives of small
sects but a union of delegations from a dozen major Communist parties. The
outcome of this meeting was to give the Russian leaders control of the new
International, now broken away sharply from the Socialist movement. It adopted
21 conditions for membership in the Comintern, demanding that its adherents
reject not only those Socialist leaders who had been "social
patriots" in the war but also those who had taken a middle position. It
aimed at creating a disciplined and militantly revolutionary world
organization patterned after the Russian model, which would accept willingly
the direction and unquestioned authority of the Russian leadership.
By 1923 the hoped-for revolutionary
tide in Europe had not developed. New uprisings in parts of Germany failed
completely in 1923. The Red Army's attempted invasion of Poland had been
thrown back. Many Socialists who had for a time joined the Comintern,
including the leadership of the Norwegian Labour Party, left-wing Communists
in Germany, and Syndicalists in France and Spain, now turned away, rejecting
its policy of centralized dictation.
Europe achieved a measure of economic
and social stabilization. By the time of Lenin's death in 1924, Moscow was
beginning to use the parties over which it still held command as
instrumentalities of Russian foreign policy. Although some Comintern leaders
like Trotsky still believed that world revolution was on the agenda, their
faith was no longer shared by the majority of the Russian leadership.
Communists throughout the world
denounced the leaders of the reconstructed Socialist parties as "social
traitors" who "objectively" fostered the maintenance of
capitalism. They accused them of having repudiated Marxism and betrayed
international socialism by collaborating during the war with the bourgeoisie
in the defense of their national states. The Socialist leaders retorted by
pointing to the dictatorial features of the Soviet state and accusing the
Communists of having betrayed the democratic socialist tradition. (see also
Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, )
The European Socialist movement was
irremediably split. In Germany, the Social Democrats united again and
succeeded in enrolling the bulk of the working class under their banner; the
Communists were reduced to a minority position in the German labour movement.
In France, where the Communists at first succeeded in attracting the majority
of the Socialist Party, their opponents soon regained ascendancy and the
Communists became a minority on the French left. Italian socialism split into
Communists and left-wing and right-wing Socialists and thus greatly
facilitated Mussolini's march to power. In Great Britain the Communists hardly
made a dent in the Labour Party and never became more than a radical sect.
European socialism as a whole, as well as socialist movements on other
continents, was sharply split between adherents of the Second International
and the Communists organized in the Third.
The Comintern followed an erratic
course, sometimes veering toward a revolutionary line and sometimes making
attempts to collaborate with the more militant strata of the socialists. After
the onset of the economic depression in 1929 the Comintern took a sharp
leftist turn, expecting the "final crisis" of capitalism to bring
proletarian revolution everywhere. It denounced Social Democratic leaders as
"social Fascists" and enemies of the working class. In the Prussian
Landtag the Communists actually voted with the Nazis
to bring down a Social Democratic government, on the theory that the Nazi
movement was a passing phenomenon.
At the same time the Socialists gave
up in practice, though not always in theory, their commitment to revolutionary
doctrine. They became in effect pressure groups trying to extract maximum
advantages for the working classes from their respective national regimes. In
Germany, in Britain, and in the Scandinavian countries they participated at
times in the government. Elsewhere, as in France, they tended to support
congenial left-bourgeois regimes. But they lacked, on the whole, a concrete
plan of social and economic action, and consequently were ineffective when the
world depression unsettled the economies and political regimes of western and
central Europe.
Nowhere, except in Sweden and Belgium,
did the socialists press for comprehensive socialist planning during the
depression. Where they were in power they followed orthodox policies of
budgetary management and public finance. When they were out of power they
contented themselves with a defense of the immediate interests of the workers
by demanding more unemployment insurance and opposing reductions in wages.
As the crisis deepened, the Communists
gained influence, particularly among the unemployed and those unskilled
workers hit most severely by the depression. They did not make deep inroads
among other workers.
Hitler's rise in Germany led to the
destruction of both the Communists and the Socialists in that country. The
Communists had hoped that a Nazi victory would be only temporary, and that
afterward they would be called upon to lead the masses of Germany to victory.
Their battle cry was, "After the Nazis--We." The Socialists played
politics as usual, expecting that the depression would run its
"natural" course and that a gradual decline of the Nazi fever would
follow. A disunited labour movement proved unable to stay the Nazi march to
power. This disaster led both Communists and Socialists to reconsider their
previous policies and to revise their strategy and tactics.
Austrian
Socialists, threatened with destruction by the reactionary regime of
Chancellor Engelbert Dollfuss, resolved to
offer armed resistance in February 1934. The Austrian party had long been
regarded as a model for both its theoretical contributions and its concrete
accomplishments. It enjoyed the nearly total support of the workers; 500,000
of Vienna's 2,000,000 inhabitants were dues-paying members. But the party was
almost completely metropolitan and urban. Consequently the bloody battles of
February 1934 remained localized in Vienna. The uprising was suppressed after
four days, and the party had to go underground. (see also
Social Democratic Party of Austria)
The end of World War I had seen a
somewhat reluctant Social Democratic Party installed in the seat of German
government. Friedrich Ebert, the head of the
party, became the first president of the new republic. But the Socialists were
split internally. The "majority Socialists," the right wing of the
party, wished to proceed in a cautious and pragmatic manner. The
"independent Socialists," led by Kautsky
and his former antagonist Bernstein, pressed
for fundamental structural reforms. The extreme left, led by Rosa
Luxemburg and Karl Liebknecht, wished
to organize a revolutionary party and founded the Communist Party of Germany.
When younger extremists, overruling Luxemburg and Liebknecht, organized a
left-wing Putsch early in 1919, they
were isolated and easily defeated by the government of the majority Socialists
and its allies among right-wing officers. Luxemburg and Liebknecht were
assassinated, and the remaining leaders took the group into the Comintern.
Another left-wing and Communist putsch in Bavaria a few months later was also
unsuccessful. In the early 1920s, the independents reunited with the majority
Socialists.
In the first election to the new
National Assembly in 1919 the majority Socialists obtained a plurality of the
votes cast (39.3 percent), and the independent Socialists won another 8
percent. The Socialist government proclaimed the need for socialization of
monopolistic industries and other radical measures. But after the elections of
June 1920, a non-Socialist cabinet took office. In subsequent years the
cabinets were largely non-Socialist in character, though Socialists
participated in some of them. The middle classes were again in the saddle, and
when President Ebert died in 1925 the conservative nationalist Hindenburg
succeeded him. Throughout the turmoil of the first years of the Weimar
Republic, the Social Democrats remained a bulwark of republican
legality against both the extreme right and the extreme left. In the Länder
(states), Prussia in particular, they held positions of governmental power
and managed to institute a number of reformist welfare measures. But they
failed to gain a controlling voice in national politics.
In the May 1928 elections the Social
Democrats emerged as the strongest party in the Reichstag. Although they
lacked a majority, their leader Hermann Mueller became chancellor, and their
financial expert was named minister of finance. This largely Socialist
government, however, proved unable to deal with the economic depression that
soon afflicted Germany along with the rest of the world. The government
followed an orthodox deflationary policy, pressed for the reduction of
unemployment benefits in order to save taxes, and attempted to reduce budget
deficits. Unable to stem the tide of depression, it resigned in 1930. This was
the last government of the Weimar Republic in which Social Democrats
participated. Soon afterward, the Nazis started on their way to power. (see
also Great
Depression)
In the general election of 1923 the Labour
Party, which had adopted a Socialist program only five years earlier,
won a plurality; with the support of the Liberals it formed the first Labour
government under Ramsay MacDonald in January
1924. Its tenure proved short. After implementing a few modest reform
measures, it was ousted by an electorate which, partly because of manufactured
fears of a "Bolshevist menace," turned sharply to the right in the
elections of October 1924.
In June 1929 the Labour Party had its
second chance. It won 288 out of 615 seats in the House of Commons and, with
the support of the Liberals, formed the second Labour government, again under
Ramsay MacDonald. But Labour, like the German Social Democrats, proved unable
to deal with the depression, particularly with mounting unemployment. It was
pledged to far-reaching social reforms that it was not prepared to carry out.
The flight of capital from London assumed catastrophic proportions; business
circles demanded a balanced budget and lower unemployment benefits. When
MacDonald proposed to accede to some of these demands, the trade unions
sharply opposed him. He then split the Labour government and formed a national
coalition with the Conservatives and the Liberals. For the remainder of the
1930s the Labour Party was out of power.
In the Italian elections of 1919, the
Socialists won 2,000,000 votes out of a total of 5,500,000. Italy seemed on
the verge of revolution; large-scale strikes, mass demonstrations, factory
occupations, and spontaneous expropriations of landed estates spread
throughout the country. In August 1920 a revolutionary situation developed in
the industrial north after a breakdown in wage negotiations; 500,000 workers
occupied the factories, kept production going, and prepared for armed
resistance. The far left called for an extension of the strike, but a divided
Socialist leadership hesitated. The discouraged workers retreated. Mussolini's
Blackshirts began breaking up working-class meetings. In 1921 the right-wing
Socialists proposed that the party form a coalition government with the
Liberals, but the left vetoed the idea. Mussolini's terror squads made further
inroads in the large industrial centres. A general strike called by the trade
unions proved a dismal failure. Soon afterward Mussolini made his March on
Rome (October 1922) and was installed as premier. By 1926 parliamentary
government had completely ended in Italy. The Socialists were driven
underground.
None of the French governments from
the end of World War I until the middle 1930s included Socialists. Although
the Socialist Party was in fact deeply committed to gradualism, it still clung
to its prewar policy of not participating in "bourgeois"
governments. Only in the mid-1930s, when militant right-wing groups threatened
the Third Republic, did the Socialists change their policy. In June 1936 a
government took office representing a Popular Front,
ranging from the Communists on the left to Radical
Socialists in the centre and headed by the Socialist leader Léon
Blum. The Communists had at last abandoned their doctrine of
"social Fascism" and were now willing to enter coalitions with other
parties of the centre and left.
The victory of the Popular Front in
June 1936 was accompanied by sit-down strikes in the factories; these helped
push the government, headed by Léon Blum, in a radical direction.
Collective bargaining rights, never recognized before by French employers,
were now protected by law; social security and general working conditions were
significantly improved; the 40-hour week was made mandatory. The Blum
government attempted to institute a French version of the U.S. New Deal. But
after the initial enthusiasm had waned, French employers took courage and
pressed the government to return to traditional fiscal and budgetary policies.
When in June 1937 his middle-of-the-road partners in the coalition refused his
demands for emergency fiscal powers, Blum resigned. The Socialists
participated in the next government headed by a Radical Socialist, and Léon
Blum later formed another Popular Front government that held office for about
a month in 1938. When France went to war against Germany in 1939 the Communist
Party, which opposed the war, was banned. After France's collapse in 1940, the
Socialist Party was dissolved by the Vichy government.
Only in Sweden
were Socialists successful in their governmental policies. A Swedish Labour
government was formed for the first time in 1932. Unlike the other European
Socialist parties, the Swedes broke with orthodox budgetary and financial
policies and stressed large-scale intervention by the government in the
planning of economic affairs. Extensive public works, financed by borrowing
from idle capital resources, helped to reduce unemployment and stimulated the
economy; public investment was used methodically to offset the effects of
reduced private spending. Unemployment, which had reached 164,000 in 1933, was
eliminated by 1938 through a policy of steady economic expansion. The Swedish
innovations helped lead the way to the economic policies practiced by almost
all Western countries after World War II.
Orthodox Marxists had always assumed
that socialism would emerge first in the industrial countries of the world.
But a new kind of "socialism" spread rapidly in agrarian societies
and backward countries after World War II. In many of these countries Marxism
became, despite the intention of its founders, the ideology of
industrialization. In the struggle against colonialism the liberation
movements, especially the intellectuals and semi-intellectuals who led them,
adopted what they conceived to be socialist ideas. It seemed to them that
meaningful national independence could be attained only through state
direction of the economy. Rapid economic growth, they believed, could be
fostered only by restricting consumption and channelling national resources
into the building up of productive facilities. In one degree or another the
new countries took the Soviet Union as their model for rapid
industrialization. All manner of regimes, from totalitarian one-party states
to military dictatorships, proclaimed that they were socialist. Only in India
and a very few other countries did the ruling party retain the traditional
Western socialist vision of social justice, equality, and democracy.
In the meantime, ironically, the
Socialists of western Europe were giving up their Marxist views and turning
toward the welfare state. During World War II
almost all of the Socialist parties had joined governments of national unity.
Afterward they sought to become popular parties following the parliamentary
road to power and ready to participate in coalition governments with Liberal
or Christian Democratic partners. Surrendering the idea that only full state
ownership would bring the good society, they aimed at a mixed economy in which
public control and a certain amount of planning would bring social benefits
for all. This was, in essence, the idea of "the inevitability of
gradualism" that the English Fabians and the German revisionists had
preached around the turn of the century.
The changed orientation of the postwar
German Social Democratic Party was expressed
in its Frankfurt declaration of 1951, which made no mention of the class
struggle and other traditional Marxist doctrine, stating instead that the
party "aims to put economic power in the hands of the people as a whole
and to create a community in which free men work together as equals." It
advocated public control of the economy but rejected comprehensive state
ownership. It accepted planning, but stressed that democratic socialist
planning had nothing in common with the Communist and totalitarian kind.
A few years later, in its program of
principles adopted in Bad Godesberg in 1959, the party shed the last remnants
of Marxism. The name of Marx and the words "class" and "class
struggle" are not to be found in that program, which even advocates
private property in the means of production. It rejects overall central
planning and endorses the idea of a competitive free market. The party stands
for "as much competition as possible--as much planning as
necessary." A "mixed economy" is seen as the ideal. The party
no longer claims to possess a universally valid doctrine, but stands for a
pluralistic society in which no party seeks to impose its particular
philosophy on society as a whole. Thus to all intents and purposes the Social
Democratic Party of Germany, which in 1969 formed a government under the
leadership of Willy Brandt, has become a
reformist party striving for an extension of the welfare state.
The British Labour Party was never
committed to Marxism and hence found it easier to adjust to the political
realities of the postwar world. In 1945 it won a majority in Parliament for
the first time. The government of Prime Minister Clement
Attlee, during its six years of power, laid the foundations of the British
welfare state. A number of basic industries such as coal, railways, road
transport, and steel were nationalized. A comprehensive system of nationalized
medical care was established. Social services were extended. Full employment
was maintained. Although Labour was voted out of office in 1951, its main
achievements remained. The steel industry again reverted to private control,
but the Conservatives made no effort to undo the other features of the welfare
state.
Hugh Gaitskell,
who succeeded Attlee in the leadership of the party, wanted to revamp its
program by eliminating earlier pledges that the party seek large-scale
nationalization of industry. He was not successful, but in practice the party
became married to a reformist course aiming at the extension of the welfare
state and of pragmatic planning. When the party returned to power in 1965, its
leader, Harold Wilson, prime minister until
the elections of 1970, pursued a cautiously reformist policy. Harassed by
economic difficulties and forced to pay more attention to the balance of
payments than to internal reforms, the Labour government made few policy
decisions of a distinctively socialist character.
The French Socialist Party,
reconstituted after World War II, participated in leading positions in the
first few postwar French governments. It
supported nationalization of parts of French industry, especially public
utilities, mining, and much of banking and insurance, as well as wide-ranging
measures of public control over the economy and structural reforms in the
field of social security. But the party had lost much of its prewar support
among the workers to the Communists. The Socialists increasingly became a
party of civil servants, middle-class professionals, and other white-collar
employees. While they made no attempt to recast their program as the German
Social Democrats did, their actual orientation was equally moderate. When they
did at length achieve power under the leadership of François Mitterrand
in 1981 they undertook to nationalize a number of industrial and financial
concerns, but the exigencies of worldwide recession and pressures on the franc
kept them to a notably moderate course.
The Italian
Socialist movement split into a number of parties. The largest
organization, the Italian Socialist Party under Pietro
Nenni, attempted to revive the pre-Mussolini left-wing socialist
tradition. It contended that the interests of the working class could best be
served by cooperation with the Communists. Of all the Socialist parties of
Europe it stood closest to the prewar Marxist tradition of class conflict and
"orthodox" Marxism. After the Hungarian
revolution of 1956, however, the party increasingly drew away from
collaboration with the Communists, finally entering a centre-left coalition
government with the Christian Democrats in 1963. Since then it has in practice
become indistinguishable from other western European Socialist parties.
The second largest Socialist party of
Italy during the post-World War II period has been the Democratic Socialist
Party formed under the leadership of Giuseppe Saragat.
It was committed to moderate social reforms, and participated in almost every Italian
coalition government after 1947. In 1966 the two major Socialist parties
merged, but they separated again in the late 1960s. (see also
Italian Democratic Socialist Party)
All the western European Socialist
parties have become committed to the welfare state, though they vary in the
extent to which they have formally abandoned their Marxist orientation. Some
of their theoreticians still cling to the hope that socialism will eventually
go beyond the welfare state toward a society in which class distinctions will
have been erased and wealth will be more equitably distributed. But while this
may be their dream, it no longer informs their political actions.
Socialist ideas were carried to North
Africa mainly by French-educated African intellectuals; in addition, many
French settlers, especially schoolteachers and civil servants, were Socialists
or Communists. The various national liberation movements, especially in
Tunisia and Algeria, linked the struggle against colonial domination with
socialist ideas. When Algeria became
independent its first leader, Ahmed Ben Bella,
surrounded himself with French advisers from various Marxist groups. (see also
colonialism)
Collectivization of agriculture and
self-management in industry stood high on the agenda of the Algerian national
government. When these programs failed, Ben Bella was replaced by Col. Houari
Boumedienne, who was pledged to continue "Algerian socialism"
but settled in fact for an economy based on state-directed enterprises and
private landholdings. The country was, in fact, run by a military
dictatorship. (see also nationalism)
In Tunisia
a one-party regime was installed after the liberation of 1956; under its
leader, Habib Bourguiba, it proceeded to nationalize the major enterprises.
The ruling party, the Destour Socialist Party,
permitted no rival political organization; it was committed to modernization
through planned development of the economy.
Elsewhere in Africa a variety of
"African socialisms" sprang up in the 1950s and 1960s. Pres. Léopold
Sédar Senghor of Senegal advocated a socialist
"humanism" based only partly on Marx. Pres. Sékou
Touré; of Guinea sought to combine Marxist-Leninist ideas with
the communal values of precolonial Africa--to "Africanize" Marxism.
Pres. Kwame Nkrumah of Ghana proclaimed "consciencism" as the basis
for his regime and stated that "only totalitarian measures can preserve
liberty"; he was overthrown in 1966.
In Kenya, Tanzania, and other African
countries, the ruling elites proclaimed their adherence to one or another
version of "African socialism" while in fact being committed above
all to rapid industrialization and modernization. Many African socialist
writers stressed the need to build their socialism upon African traditions
such as communal land ownership, the egalitarian practices of some tribal
societies, and the network of reciprocities and obligations that once existed
in tribal societies.
Throughout Africa the commitment to
socialism was hardly more than lip-service to an ideal. The pressing need was
to move from a subsistence to a market economy, to industrialize, and to
organize health services, education, housing, and public administration.
Autonomous institutions in which men might strive for concerted political and
social goals independent of government control scarcely existed in Africa.
Hence the prospect for democratic, as distinct from imposed, socialism was
remote.
The "socialist" movements of
the Middle East have been led by
European-educated intellectuals belonging to a new middle class of civil
servants, army officers, and schoolteachers. Trying to appeal to the Arab
people as a whole, and without distinction as to class, they have stood for
modernization and for the brotherhood of all Arabs.
The major socialist movement has been
the Arab Socialist Party, usually called the Ba'th
Party. Founded in Syria, it has rejected tribal or regional loyalties.
Ba'th factions have held power in Iraq and Syria but have not promoted
specifically socialist measures or made concrete reforms.
When Gamal
Abdel Nasser came to power in Egypt in 1952, his group of young army
officers of lower middle class origin had little if any interest in socialism.
Nasser was led to socialist ideas in his struggle against the domination of
foreign business. By the middle of the 1960s Egypt had nationalized all large
industrial and financial enterprises, whether domestic or foreign; it had
expropriated large-scale landowners; and it had placed all important sectors
of the economy under the control of state planners. But the structure of power
remained that of a military dictatorship.
Representatives of a dozen Asian
Socialist parties met in Rangoon in January 1953 for the first Asian Socialist
Conference. Some of the delegates had international reputations. The
governments of several Asian countries--India, Burma, Ceylon, Indonesia, and
Singapore--called themselves Socialist. Yet the Socialist parties soon
thereafter lost even the semblance of power and influence. In India,
where several Socialist organizations competed, the ruling Congress
Party was in fact a national party striving to unite within its ranks
many divergent political and social tendencies. The Burmese Socialist Party
was for many years part of a coalition that ruled the country, but it was
outlawed in 1962 when Gen. Ne Win seized power. The Indonesian Socialist Party
was abolished by President Sukarno in 1960.
Except in Singapore, the postwar Socialist parties in Southeast Asia played no
major role in the 1960s.
As the influence of the European-style
Socialist parties waned, a variety of authoritarian regimes arose speaking in
socialist accents. Indonesia's President Sukarno proclaimed Resopim
(Revolution, Indonesian Socialism, and National Guidance) his official
ideology. The Burmese military dictatorship proclaimed Burma a socialist
state. North Vietnam (and later all of Vietnam) was ruled by a Communist
party; in the rest of Indochina, revolutionary movements inspired by Communist
ideology battled traditionalist forces supported by the United States. In
China, the Communist government of the People's Republic has been in power
since 1949.
The Socialist parties of Southeast
Asia, after playing a brief role in the struggle for independence, failed to
take root in national politics. They were led by European-educated
intellectuals, who attempted to emulate European models and were committed to
the idea of a democratic road to socialism. But the countries of Southeast
Asia were not prepared to follow them; they turned instead to authoritarian
regimes that pursued industrial development. Only in Singapore and India were
attempts made to combine democracy and socialist planning. In most of Asia, as
in Africa, "socialism" has become the ideology of new elites seeking
modernization and rapid industrialization.
Only in Japan,
by far the most developed of Asian countries, have traditional socialist
organizations become firmly established. The first Socialist
Party of Japan, formed in 1901, was soon dissolved and forced to go
underground. During and after World War I socialist organizations again sprang
up. In 1936 the Social Mass Party elected 18 members to the Parliament and
received more than half a million votes. After World War II socialist
organizations that had been suppressed since 1940 appeared again. In 1946 the
Socialist Party won over 90 seats to become the third strongest party. A year
later it gained the largest number of seats in Parliament, and its leader
Katayama Tetsu became prime minister in a coalition government. In October
1948, however, the conservatives took office. The Socialists were deeply split
between gradualists and revolutionaries. The left wing tended to be sharply
anti-American and leaned toward the Soviet Union; the right wing favoured a
gradual relaxation of close military and political ties with the United
States. The two wings broke apart in the 1950s to form the (left) Socialist
Party of Japan and the (right) Democratic Socialist Party. Together they
controlled about one-third of the seats in Parliament, but they seemed
condemned to a permanent minority status. Japanese socialism still awaits a
transformation similar to that undergone by western European Socialism in the
postwar era.
Socialism has deep roots in the
British Commonwealth countries of Australia,
New Zealand, and Canada. The Australian Labor Party
was formed in 1901, when the Australian Commonwealth came into existence. Only
three years later its leader, J.C. Watson, became the world's first Labor
prime minister. In 1908, and again from May 1910 to June 1913, Labor headed
the government. In subsequent years the Labor Party has been frequently in
office.
A loose Liberal-Labour alliance
dominated New Zealand politics between 1893
and 1906, but the New Zealand Labour Party, as a social-democratic party
committed to the socialization of the means of production, did not emerge
until 1913. It grew steadily, coming to power in 1935 for the first of several
periods of varying duration.
The Australian and New Zealand labour
movements have been committed to a gradualist and reformist course since their
inception. They are strongly tied to the unions, and though in principle
pledged to a Socialist program they are in fact mainly concerned with using
governmental control as a means of dealing with immediate problems and
expanding social services. The various social security acts that they
introduced helped to make Australia and New Zealand modern welfare states, and
relatively equalitarian societies, even before World War II.
Canadian
socialism had a slower beginning than its Australian and New Zealand
counterparts. Prior to World War I the Canadian Socialist movement was split
between two parties, neither of which managed to win seats in the federal
Parliament. During the 1920s various Socialist and Labour parties flourished
in different parts of Canada, but only rarely did they send a representative
to the federal Parliament. Only with the organization of the Co-operative
Commonwealth Federation (CCF) in 1932 did the Socialist movement begin to
achieve national importance. Basing its campaigns on the need for "social
and economic planning on a bold and comprehensive scale," it gained
support in most provincial elections and in June 1944 was able to form a
government in the province of Saskatchewan, where it remained in power for 20
years. In 1961 progressive union leaders of the labour congress met with the
CCF leadership and formed the New Democratic Party.
Whereas the CCF had been largely agrarian in character, the new party had a
following in the industrialized parts of the country. Advocating a planned
economy, it stood for increased social security, government employment
guarantees, large-scale construction of low-rent housing, and the like. Its
policies were similar to those of postwar western European socialism.
The historical roots of Latin
American socialism are fairly old. Several branches of the First
International were established in Argentina in the early 1870s. In Chile and
Argentina, and to a lesser extent in other Latin American countries,
socialists at times played leading roles, but they were hampered by a variety
of splits and by the fact that their following consisted mainly of immigrant
industrial workers. They had no impact in rural areas. In Chile,
however, they participated in coalition and popular front governments in the
1920s, '30s, and '40s. In 1958, Chilean socialists supported the Popular
Action Front (FRAP) candidate, Salvador Allende.
He was narrowly defeated, and defeated again in 1964. In 1970, however, he won
by a narrow plurality in a three-way election and became head of a government
supported by a popular front ranging from Communists to democratic reformers.
His government, pledged to the nationalization of foreign-owned industry and
to the planned reconstruction of the country, met with increasing economic
turmoil and opposition from the middle class; Allende's expulsion by military
coup in 1973 left the future of socialism in Chile uncertain. (L.A.C.)
|
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