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Philosophy 

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Thomas Aquinas

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Introduction

St. Thomas Aquinas (Italian: San Tommaso d'Aquino) was a Christian philosopher who developed his own conclusions from Aristotelian premises, notably in the metaphysics of personality, creation, and Providence; a theologian responsible in his two masterpieces, the Summa theologiae and the Summa contra gentiles, for the classical systematization of Latin theology; and a poet who wrote some of the most gravely beautiful eucharistic hymns in the church's liturgy. Although many modern Roman Catholic theologians do not find St. Thomas altogether congenial, he is nevertheless recognized by the Roman Catholic Church as its foremost Western philosopher and theologian. (see also  Thomism, Christianity)

Thomism refers both to the doctrinal system of St. Thomas Aquinas and to the explanations and developments made by his followers. The main phases in the philosophical and theological tradition of the Thomistic school are the personal synthesis of St. Thomas, the work of the great commentators, and the modern revival.

LIFE AND WORKS

 

Early years.

Thomas was born in 1224 or 1225, at Roccasecca, near Aquino, on the road from Rome to Naples, where his parents were in possession of a modest feudal domain on a boundary constantly disputed by the emperor and the pope. His father was of Lombard origin; his mother was of the later invading Norman strain. His people were distinguished in the service of Emperor Frederick II during the civil strife in southern Italy between the papal and imperial forces. Thomas was placed in the monastery of Monte Cassino near his home as an oblate (i.e., offered as a prospective monk) when he was still a young boy; his family doubtless hoped that he would someday become abbot to their advantage. In 1239, after nine years in this sanctuary of spiritual and cultural life, young Thomas was forced to return to his family when the Emperor expelled the monks because they were too obedient to the Pope. He was then sent to the University of Naples, recently founded by the Emperor, where he first encountered the scientific and philosophical works that were being translated from the Greek and the Arabic. In this setting Thomas decided to join the Friars Preachers, or Dominicans, a new religious order founded 30 years earlier, which departed from the traditional paternalistic form of government for monks to the more democratic form of the mendicant friars (i.e., religious orders whose corporate as well as personal poverty made it necessary for them to beg alms) and from the monastic life of prayer and manual labour to a more active life of preaching and teaching. By this move he took a liberating step beyond the feudal world into which he was born and the monastic spirituality in which he was reared. A dramatic episode marked the full significance of his decision. His parents had him abducted on the road to Paris, where his shrewd superiors had immediately assigned him so that he would be out of the reach of his family but also so that he could pursue his studies in the most prestigious and turbulent university of the time.

Studies in Paris.

Thomas held out stubbornly against his family despite a year of captivity. He was finally liberated and in the autumn of 1245 went to Paris to the convent of Saint-Jacques, the great university centre of the Dominicans; there he studied under Albertus Magnus, a tremendous scholar with a wide range of intellectual interests.

Escape from the feudal world, rapid commitment to the University of Paris, and religious vocation to one of the new mendicant orders all meant a great deal in a world in which faith in the traditional institutional and conceptual structure was being attacked. The encounter between the gospel and the culture of his time formed the nerve centre of Thomas' position and directed its development. Normally, his work is presented as the integration into Christian thought of the recently discovered Aristotelian philosophy, in competition with the integration of Platonic thought effected by the Fathers of the Church during the first 12 centuries of the Christian Era. This view is essentially correct; more radically, however, it should also be asserted that Thomas' work accomplished an evangelical awakening to the need for a cultural and spiritual renewal not only in the lives of individual men but also throughout the church. Thomas must be understood in his context as a mendicant religious, influenced both by the evangelism of St. Francis of Assisi, founder of the Franciscan order, and by the devotion to scholarship of St. Dominic, founder of the Dominican order.

When Thomas Aquinas arrived at the University of Paris, the influx of Arabian-Aristotelian science was arousing a sharp reaction among believers; and several times the church authorities tried to block the naturalism and rationalism that were emanating from this philosophy and, according to many ecclesiastics, seducing the younger generations. Thomas did not fear these new ideas, but, like his master Albertus Magnus (and Roger Bacon, also lecturing at Paris), he studied the works of Aristotle and eventually lectured publicly on them.

For the first time in history, Christian believers and theologians were confronted with the rigorous demands of scientific rationalism. At the same time, technical progress was requiring men to move from the rudimentary economy of an agrarian society to an urban society with production organized in trade guilds, with a market economy, and with a profound feeling of community. New generations of men and women, including clerics, were reacting against the traditional notion of contempt for the world and were striving for mastery over the forces of nature through the use of their reason. The structure of Aristotle's philosophy emphasized the primacy of the intelligence. Technology itself became a means of access to truth; mechanical arts were powers for humanizing the cosmos. Thus, the dispute over the reality of universals--i.e., the question about the relation between general words such as "red" and particulars such as "this red object"--which had dominated early Scholastic philosophy, was left behind; and a coherent metaphysics of knowledge and of the world was being developed. (see also  scholasticism)

During the summer of 1248, Aquinas left Paris with Albertus, who was to assume direction of the new faculty established by the Dominicans at the convent in Cologne. He remained there until 1252, when he returned to Paris to prepare for the degree of master of theology. After taking his bachelor's degree, he received the licentia docendi ("license to teach") at the beginning of 1256 and shortly afterward finished the training necessary for the title and privileges of master. Thus, in the year 1256 he began teaching theology in one of the two Dominican schools incorporated in the University of Paris.

Years at the papal Curia and return to Paris.

In 1259 Thomas was appointed theological adviser and lecturer to the papal Curia, then the centre of Western humanism. He returned to Italy, where he spent two years at Anagni at the end of the reign of Alexander IV and four years at Orvieto with Urban IV. From 1265 to 1267 he taught at the convent of Santa Sabina in Rome and then, at the request of Clement IV, went to the papal Curia in Viterbo. Suddenly, in November 1268, he was sent to Paris, where he became involved in a sharp doctrinal polemic that had just been triggered off.

The works of Averroës, the outstanding representative of Arabic philosophy in Spain, who was known as the great commentator and interpreter of Aristotle, were just becoming known to the Parisian masters. There seems to be no doubt about the Islamic faith of the Cordovan philosopher; nevertheless, he asserted that the structure of religious knowledge was entirely heterogeneous to rational knowledge: two truths--one of faith, the other of reason--can, in the final analysis, be contradictory. This dualism was denied by Muslim orthodoxy and was still less acceptable to Christians. With the appearance of Siger of Brabant, however, and from 1266 on, the quality of Averroës' exegesis and the wholly rational bent of his thought began to attract disciples in the faculty of arts at the University of Paris. Thomas Aquinas rose in protest against his colleagues; nevertheless, the parties retained a mutual esteem. As soon as he returned from Italy, Thomas began to dispute with Siger, who, he claimed, was compromising not only orthodoxy but also the Christian interpretation of Aristotle. Aquinas found himself wedged in between the Augustinian tradition of thought, now more emphatic than ever in its criticism of Aristotle, and the Averroists. Radical Averroism was condemned in 1270, but at the same time Thomas, who sanctioned the autonomy of reason under faith, was discredited.

In the course of this dispute, the very method of theology was called into question. According to Aquinas, reason is able to operate within faith and yet according to its own laws. The mystery of God is expressed and incarnate in human language; it is thus able to become the object of an active, conscious, and organized elaboration in which the rules and structures of rational activity are integrated in the light of faith. In the Aristotelian sense of the word, then (although not in the modern sense), theology is a "science"; it is knowledge that is rationally derived from propositions that are accepted as certain because they are revealed by God. The theologian accepts authority and faith as his starting point and then proceeds to conclusions using reason; the philosopher, on the other hand, relies solely on the natural light of reason. Thomas was the first to view theology expressly in this way or at least to present it systematically, and in doing so he raised a storm of opposition in various quarters. Even today this opposition endures, especially among religious enthusiasts for whom reason remains an intruder in the realm of mystical communion, contemplation, and the sudden ecstasy of evangelical fervour.

The literary form of Aquinas' works must be appreciated in the context of his methodology. He organized his teaching in the form of "questions," in which critical research is presented by pro and con arguments, according to the pedagogical system then in use in the universities. Forms varied from simple commentaries on official texts to written accounts of the public disputations, which were significant events in medieval university life. Thomas' works are divided into three categories: 1) commentaries on such works as the Old and New Testaments, the Sentences of Peter Lombard (the official manual of theology in the universities), and the writings of Aristotle; 2) disputed questions, accounts of his teaching as a master in the disputations; 3) two summae or personal syntheses, the Summa contra gentiles and the Summa theologiae, which were presented as integral introductions for the use of beginners. Numerous opuscula ("little works"), which have great interest because of the particular circumstances that provoked them, must also be noted.

The logic of Aquinas' position regarding faith and reason required that the fundamental consistency of the realities of nature be recognized. A physis ("nature") has necessary laws; recognition of this fact permits the construction of a science according to a logos ("rational structure"). Thomas thus avoided the temptation to sacralize the forces of nature through a naïve recourse to the miraculous or the Providence of God. For him, a whole "supernatural" world that cast its shadow over things and men, in Romanesque art as in social customs, had blurred men's imaginations. Nature, discovered in its profane reality, should assume its proper religious value and lead to God by more rational ways, yet not simply as a shadow of the supernatural. This understanding is exemplified in the way that Francis of Assisi admired the birds, the plants, and the Sun.

The inclusion of Aristotle's Physics in university programs was not, therefore, just a matter of academic curiosity. Naturalism, however, as opposed to a sacral vision of the world, was penetrating all realms: spirituality, social customs, and political conduct. About 1270, Jean de Meun, a French poet of the new cities and Thomas' neighbour in the Rue Saint-Jacques in Paris, gave expression in his Roman de la Rose to the coarsest realism, not only in examining the physical universe but also in describing and judging the laws of procreation. Innumerable manuscripts of the Roman poet Ovid's Ars amatoria ("Art of Love") were in circulation; André le Chapelain, in his De Deo amoris ("On the God of Love") adapted a more refined version for the public. Courtly love in its more seductive forms became a more prevalent element in the culture of the 13th century.

At the same time, Roman law was undergoing a revival at the University of Bologna; this involved a rigorous analysis of the natural law and provided the jurists of Frederick II with a weapon against ecclesiastical theocracy. The traditional presentations of the role and duties of princes, in which biblical symbolism was used to outline beautiful pious images, were replaced by treatises that described experimental and rational attempts at government. Thomas had composed such a treatise--De regimine principum ("On the Government of Princes")--for the King of Cyprus in 1266. In the administration of justice, juridical investigations and procedures replaced fanatical recourse to ordeals and to judgments of God.

In the face of this movement, there was a fear on the part of many that the authentic values of nature would not be properly distinguished from the disorderly inclinations of mind and heart. Theologians of a traditional bent firmly resisted any form of a determinist philosophy which, they believed, would atrophy liberty, dissolve personal responsibility, destroy faith in Providence, and deny the notion of a gratuitous act of creation. Imbued with Augustine's doctrines, they asserted the necessity and power of grace for a nature torn asunder by sin. The optimism of the new theology concerning the religious value of nature scandalized them.

Although he was an Aristotelian, Thomas Aquinas was certain that he could defend himself against a heterodox interpretation of "the Philosopher," as Aristotle was known. Thomas held that human liberty could be defended as a rational thesis while admitting that determinations are found in nature. In his theology of Providence, he taught a continuous creation, in which the dependence of the created on the creative wisdom guarantees the reality of the order of nature. God moves sovereignly all that he creates; but the supreme government that he exercises over the universe is conformed to the laws of a creative Providence that wills each being to act according to its proper nature. This autonomy finds its highest realization in the rational creature: man is literally self-moving in his intellectual, volitional, and physical existence. Man's freedom, far from being destroyed by his relationship to God, finds its foundation in this very relationship. "To take something away from the perfection of the creature is to abstract from the perfection of the creative power itself." This metaphysical axiom, which is also a mystical principle, is the key to St. Thomas' spirituality. (see also  free will)

Last years at Naples.

At Easter time in 1272, Thomas returned to Italy to establish a Dominican house of studies at the University of Naples. This move was undoubtedly made in answer to a request made by King Charles of Anjou, who was anxious to revive the university. After participating in a general chapter, or meeting, of the Dominicans held in Florence during Pentecost week and, having settled some family affairs, Thomas resumed his university teaching at Naples in October and continued it until the end of the following year.

Although Thomas' argument with the Averroists had for years been matched by a controversy with the Christian masters who followed the traditional Augustinian conception of man as fallen, this latter dispute now became more pronounced. In a series of university conferences in 1273, Bonaventure, a Franciscan friar and a friendly colleague of Thomas at Paris, renewed his criticism of the Aristotelian current of thought, including the teachings of Thomas. He criticized the thesis that philosophy is distinct from theology, as well as the notion of a physical nature that has determined laws; he was especially critical of the theory that the soul is bound up with the body as the two necessary principles that make up the nature of man and also reacted strongly to the Aristotelians' denial of the Platonic-Augustinian theory of knowledge based upon exemplary Ideas or Forms.

The disagreement was profound. Certainly, all Christian philosophers taught the distinction between matter and spirit. This distinction, however, could be intelligently held only if the internal relationship between matter and spirit in individual human beings was sought. It was in the process of this explanation that differences of opinion arose--not only intellectual differences between idealist and realist philosophers but also emotional differences. Some viewed the material world merely as a physical and biological reality, a stage on which the history of spiritual persons is acted out, their culture developed, and their salvation or damnation determined. This stage itself remains detached from the spiritual event, and the history of nature is only by chance the setting for the spiritual history. The history of nature follows its own path imperturbably; in this history, man is a foreigner, playing a brief role only to escape as quickly as possible from the world into the realm of pure spirit, the realm of God.

Thomas, on the contrary, noted the inclusion of the history of nature in the history of the spirit and at the same time noted the importance of the history of spirit for the history of nature. Man is situated ontologically (i.e., by his very existence) at the juncture of two universes, "like a horizon of the corporeal and of the spiritual." In man there is not only a distinction between spirit and nature but there is also an intrinsic homogeneity of the two. Aristotle furnished Aquinas with the categories necessary for the expression of this concept: the soul is the "form" of the body. For Aristotle, form is that which makes a thing to be what it is; form and matter--that out of which a thing is made--are the two intrinsic causes that constitute every material thing. For Thomas, then, the body is the matter and the soul is the form of man. The objection was raised that he was not sufficiently safeguarding the transcendence of the spirit, the doctrine that the soul survives after the death of the body.

In January 1274 Thomas Aquinas was personally summoned by Gregory X to the second Council of Lyons, which was an attempt to repair the schism between the Latin and Greek churches. On his way he was stricken by illness; he stopped at the Cistercian abbey of Fossanova, where he died on March 7, 1274. In 1277 the masters of Paris, the highest theological jurisdiction in the church, condemned a series of 219 propositions; 12 of these propositions were theses of Thomas. This was the most serious condemnation possible in the Middle Ages; its repercussions were felt in the development of ideas. It produced for several centuries a certain unhealthy spiritualism that resisted the cosmic and anthropological realism of Aquinas.

Assessment.

The biography of Thomas Aquinas is one of extreme simplicity; it chronicles little but some modest travel during a career devoted entirely to university life: at Paris, the Roman Curia, Paris again, and Naples. It would be a mistake, however, to judge that his life was merely the quiet life of a professional teacher untouched by the social and political affairs of his day. The drama that went on in his mind and in his religious life found its causes and produced its effects in the university. In the young universities all the ingredients of a rapidly developing civilization were massed together, and to these universities the Christian Church had deliberately and authoritatively committed its doctrine and its spirit. In this environment, Thomas found the technical conditions for elaborating his work--not only the polemic occasions for turning it out but also the enveloping and penetrating spiritual milieu needed for it. It is within the homogeneous contexts supplied by this environment that it is possible today to discover the historical intelligibility of his work, just as they supplied the climate for its fruitfulness at the time of its birth.

Thomas Aquinas was canonized a saint in 1323, officially named doctor of the church in 1567, and proclaimed the protagonist of orthodoxy during the modernist crisis at the end of the 19th century. This continuous commendation, however, cannot obliterate the historical difficulties in which he was embroiled in the 13th century during a radical theological renewal--a renewal that was contested at the time and yet was brought about by the social, cultural, and religious evolution of the West. Thomas was at the heart of the doctrinal crisis that confronted Christendom when the discovery of Greek science, culture, and thought seemed about to crush it. William of Tocco, Aquinas' first biographer, who had known him and was able to give evidence of the impression produced by his master's teaching, says:

Brother Thomas raised new problems in his teaching, invented a new method, used new systems of proof. To hear him teach a new doctrine, with new arguments, one could not doubt that God, by the irradiation of this new light and by the novelty of this inspiration, gave him the power to teach, by the spoken and written word, new opinions and new knowledge.

(M.-D.Ch.)

THOMISM

 

Aquinas' position.

Although making respectful use of Aristotle and the Platonists, Augustine and the Fathers, Thomas Aquinas developed a distinctive position. His originality was shown in treating existence (esse) as the supreme act or perfection of being in God as well as in created things, in reserving the creative act to God alone, in denying the presence of matter in angels, and thus in distinguishing between God and creatures by a real composition of existence and essence as principles in all created beings. Also characteristic was his teaching that the human soul is a unique subsistent form, substantially united with matter to constitute human nature. Aquinas maintained that the immortality of the human soul can be strictly demonstrated, that there is a real distinction of principles between the soul and its powers of knowing and willing, and that human knowledge is based upon sense experience leading to the mind's reflective activity. He held that both man and lower creatures have a natural tendency or love toward God, that supernatural grace perfects and elevates our natural abilities, and that blessedness consists formally in knowing God Himself, a knowledge accompanied by our full love of God.

This coherent but complex body of Thomistic doctrines was critically explained and developed during subsequent centuries. Views of St. Thomas on individuation and the localization of angels, man's nature and the unity of the world, appeared among the theses condemned in 1277 by Bishop Étienne Tempier at Paris and by Archbishop Robert Kilwardby at Oxford. At stake were the manner and extent of using Aristotle and his Arabian commentators in explaining Christian theology. The later 13th century was crowded with "correctorial" literature--treatises attacking and defending basic positions of St. Thomas, especially on the unicity of the human substantial form and the distinction of essence and existence. His precise meaning was lost even by some Thomists, who treated essence and existence as distinct things and overlooked the unifying relation between the substantial form and existence.

Commentators.

Encouragement toward consulting Aquinas' own writings came with the adoption of his doctrine by the Dominican Order (1278, 1279, 1286), his canonization by Pope John XXII (1323), and the special place accorded to his works at the Council of Trent. The scientific task of analyzing his thought was executed by a line of devoted commentators during the period 1400-1650. The first was the Dominican Jean Capréolus (c. 1380-1444), called the Prince of the Thomists, who recognized the need to make a direct integral study of the texts of St. Thomas. In his Four Books of Defenses of the Theology of St. Thomas Aquinas, Capréolus made a systematic use of the sources against the Scotists and Ockhamists. Another major Dominican commentator was Tomaso de Vio, Cardinal Cajetan, who made elaborate expositions of St. Thomas' Summa theologiae and On Being and Essence. He made his own restatement of the Thomistic arguments and drew upon many other writings of St. Thomas. Cajetan's independence was displayed in his work On the Analogy of Names, where he proposed the influential division of kinds of analogy into inequality, attribution, and proportionality, as well as in his opinion that the human soul's immortality can be supported only by probable reasons.

The classical commentary on St. Thomas' Summa contra gentiles was done by the Dominican Francesco Sylvestri of Ferrara (c. 1474-1528), who showed the importance of this work for the relation of faith and philosophy, the meaning of person, and the desire of God. After the mid-16th century, the Thomistic commentators became involved in the intricate theological controversies on grace and premotion. Highly systematized presentations of opposing views were introduced into the commentaries on the Summa theologiae made by the Spanish Dominican theologian Domingo Bañez and the Spanish Jesuit authors Francis Toletus and Gabriel Vázquez. But the new Renaissance tendency to give separate treatment to philosophical and theological issues, as well as the pressures of seminary education, undermined the usefulness of the commentary form of approach to St. Thomas. A new trend is present in the Dominican John of St. Thomas (1589-1644), who issued a separate Cursus Philosophicus ("Course in Philosophy") and then a Cursus Theologicus ("Course in Theology") in Thomistic thought. Using the framework of logic, philosophy of nature, and metaphysics, John assembled the philosophical teachings of St. Thomas under these systematic headings and reformulated the material for students who would then study theology. There were original features in his logic, including the distinction between formal and objective concepts and the stress on intentional signs.

Modern Thomism.

Throughout the 17th and 18th centuries, Thomism continued to be presented in philosophy and theology courses or manuals, especially in the Dominican Order. Most Thomistic manuals of this period were watered with the opinions of other Schoolmen and remained remote from modern problems. In most Catholic seminaries and universities of the early 19th century, eclecticism was the rule and more attention was paid to Descartes, Locke, and Wolff than to Aquinas. The modern revival of authentic Thomism began at this time in Italy. Vincent Buzzetti (1777-1824) and the Jesuit teacher Serafino Sordi (1793-1865) were instrumental in urging a direct study of the text of Aristotle and Aquinas. The revolutions of 1848 had a decisive influence upon both the Holy See and the Society of Jesus toward finding sound principles on God, man, and society in the works of St. Thomas. In editions of their philosophy manuals appearing after 1850, this renewal of Thomistic thought was advocated by three influential Jesuit writers in Italy and Germany: Luigi Taparelli d'Azeglio, Matteo Liberatore, and Joseph Kleutgen. Their own positions in epistemology, metaphysics, and social theory remained eclectic, but they did give impetus to the work of studying St. Thomas and the other Schoolmen in the light of modern intellectual and social issues.

Decisive support for this movement came with Pope Leo XIII's encyclical Aeterni Patris (1879). It noted the importance of sound doctrine for meeting today's problems and called for a restoration of the Christian philosophy of the Fathers and medieval Doctors, augmented where necessary by the reliable advances of modern research. Leo asked especially for a recovery of the wisdom of St. Thomas, whom he hailed as "the special bulwark and glory of the Catholic Faith." This program required an accurate historical study of St. Thomas himself and his major commentators, combined with a readiness to use the evidences and resources of modern learning and science. St. Thomas was declared the universal patron of Catholic schools, and a canon (1366, par. 2) in the new Code of Canon Law (1917) required philosophy and theology teachers to adhere to the method, doctrine, and principles of St. Thomas. This established the special authority of the Common Doctor in the church's teaching institutions, without impairing the recovery of all the other sources of Christian thought, the careful discussion of commonly recognized difficulties, and the effort to evaluate modern teachings.

Thomists of the 20th century concentrated upon two major tasks: a historical investigation of St. Thomas' doctrine in its medieval context and a rethinking of that doctrine in reference to contemporary problems. Pioneer historians were Pierre Mandonnet and Martin Grabmann, who investigated the life of Aquinas, the canon of his writings, and his historical relationships. The setting of Thomistic doctrine in the wider medieval intellectual currents was described by Maurice de Wulf and Étienne Gilson. The latter also brought out the basic role of existence in Thomistic metaphysics, which he contrasted with other historical forms of metaphysics. Some general presentations of Thomistic thought were made by showing the development of the principles of act and potency in the major areas of philosophy. The Dominican R. Garrigou-Lagrange stressed the problem of God and providence; A. Sertillanges, another Dominican, made the act of creation central to his exposition; the Jesuit Martin D'Arcy brought out the dynamic and effective aspects in the mind of Aquinas.

At the University of Louvain, Désiré-Joseph Cardinal Mercier and his associates concentrated on the challenge of modern thought for Thomism. They treated the epistemological issue at the outset of philosophy, so that metaphysics might have the support of a well-founded realism. The aim of Joseph Maréchal was to reformulate the major thinkers, especially St. Thomas, in terms of the mind's dynamic affirmation of being and ultimate reference to the reality of God. Francesco Olgiati used a metaphysical realism of substance to establish the critical relevance of Thomism to Cartesian and empiricist thinkers. How to unite the various kinds of methods and knowledges in a human order was the main concern of Jacques Maritain, but he also applied the Thomistic concept of person and community to the problem of democracy.

After World War II, Thomists faced three major tasks: to develop an adequate philosophy of science, to take account of the phenomenological and psychiatric findings on man, and to evaluate the ontologies of existentialism and naturalism. (J.D.Co.)

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M. D. Chenu ±Û

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Major Works

MAJOR WORKS

THEOLOGICAL TREATISES: Scriptum super IV libros Sententiarum (1254-56); De veritate (1256-59); Summa contra gentiles (c. 1258-64; On the Truth of the Catholic Faith, 1955); Summa theologiae (1265 or 1266-73; incomplete); De potentia Dei (1259-68; On the Power of God, 1932-34); De malo (undated; On Free Choice); De spiritualibus creaturis (undated; On Spiritual Creatures, 1949); De anima (undated; The Soul, 1949); De unione Verbi incarnati (undated); De virtutibus (1269-72; On the Virtues in General, 1951).

BIBLICAL COMMENTARIES: Expositio in Evangelium S. Matthaei (1269-72); Expositio in Job ad litteram (1261-64); Expositio in Evangelium Joannis (1269-72); Exposition in S. Pauli Apostoli epistolas (undated; incomplete); In psalmos Davidis expositio (1272-73).

COMMENTARIES ON ARISTOTLE: In octo libros Physicorum expositio (1268-71; Commentary on Aristotle's Physics, 1963); In tres libros De anima (undated; The Commentary of St. Thomas Aquinas on Aristotle's Treatise on the Soul, 1946); In librum De sensu et sensato expositio (1270-71); In decem libros Ethicorum expositio (1271-72; Commentary on the Nicomachean Ethics, 1964); In duodecim libros Metaphysicorum expositio (c. 1272; Commentary on the Metaphysics of Aristotle, 1961); In libros De caelo et mundo expositio (1272-73); In libros Posteriorum analyticorum expositio (undated; probably late).

OTHER WORKS: (PHILOSOPHICAL TREATISES): De ente et essentia (before 1256; On Being and Essence, 1949); Contra impugnantes Dei cultum et religionem (1256; An Apology for the Religious Orders, 1902); De regno (De regimine principum) ad regem Cypri (1266; On Kingship, 1949); De perfectione vitae spiritualis (1269-70); De unitate intellectus contra Averroistas (1270; The Unicity of the Intellect, 1946); De aeternitate mundi contra murmurantes (1270-72); De substantiis separatis, seu de angelorum natura (undated; Treatise on Separate Substances, 1959). (HYMNS AND LITURGICAL COMPOSITIONS): "Pange, lingua, gloriosi" (1264); "Verbum supernum prodiens" (1264; "The Word of God Proceeding Forth"); office for the Feast of Corpus Christi (c. 1264), including the sequence "Lauda Sion Salvatorem" ("Praise, O Zion, thy Salvation").

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Bibliography

BIBLIOGRAPHY. Useful Latin editions of the Opera omnia include one published in Rome, 18 vol. in 16 (1570-71), called Piana because they were published under Pius V; and a critical edition (1882- ), called Leonina because it was requested by Leo XIII. Of all his works, the Summa theologiae has been the most frequently reedited; an excellent edition was published by the Institute of Medieval Studies in Montreal, 5 vol. (1941-45).

English editions of various works include The "Summa Theologica" of St. Thomas Aquinas, 22 vol. (1912-25), trans. by the Fathers of the English Dominican province; THOMAS GILBY, Philosophical Texts (1951, reprinted 1982), and St. Thomas Aquinas: Theological Texts (1955, reprinted 1982); and ANTON C. PEGIS (ed.), Basic Writings of St. Thomas Aquinas, 2 vol. (1945).

A list of books and articles by and about St. Thomas in Euro- pean languages can be found in P. MANDONNET and J. DESTREZ, Bibliographie Thomiste, 2nd ed., rev. by M.D. CHENU (1960), covering items up to 1920; VERNON J. BOURKE, Thomistic Bibliography, 1920-1940 (1945); TERRY L. MIETHE and VERNON J. BOURKE (compilers), Thomistic Bibliography, 1940-1978 (1980); and RICHARD INGARDIA (compiler), Thomas Aquinas: International Bibliography, 1977-1990 (1993), excluding theology.

The first biography of St. Thomas was that of his disciple, WILLIAM OF TOCCO; it appears with other biographies in D. PRÜMMER (ed.), Fontes vitae S. Thomae Aquinatis, 2 vol. (1912-37). ANGELUS WALZ, Saint Thomas Aquinas: A Biographical Study (1951; originally published in Italian, 1945), is also useful.

Works on St. Thomas' historical and doctrinal contexts include PIERRE MANDONNET, Siger de Brabant et l'averroïsme latin au XIIIme siècle (1899, reprinted 1976); ÉTIENNE GILSON, The Spirit of Medieval Philosophy (1936, reprinted 1991; originally published in French, 1932), The Spirit of Thomism (1964), and History of Christian Philosophy in the Middle Ages (1955); M.D. CHENU, Nature, Man, and Society in the Twelfth Century (1968; originally published in French, 1957); and FERNAND VAN STEENBERGHEN, La Philosophie au XIIIe siècle, 2nd ed. (1991).

The following studies of Aquinas' theology and philosophy are worth consulting: ÉTIENNE GILSON, The Christian Philosophy of St. Thomas Aquinas (1956, reprinted 1983; originally published in French, 1922); M.D. CHENU, Toward Understanding St. Thomas (1964; originally published in French, 1950); MARTIN C. D'ARCY, St. Thomas Aquinas (1953); OLIVA BLANCHETTE, The Perfection of the Universe According to Aquinas: A Teleological Cosmology (1992); JOHN F. WIPPEL, Metaphysical Themes in Thomas Aquinas (1984), on Aquinas as a Christian philosopher; PONTIFICAL INSTITUTE OF MEDIAEVAL STUDIES, St. Thomas Aquinas, 1274-1974: Commemorative Studies, 2 vol. (1974), 35 essays by neo-scholastic scholars; NORMAN KRETZMANN and ELEONORE STUMP (eds.), The Cambridge Companion to Aquinas (1993), a collection of scholarly essays; DAVID B. BURRELL, Aquinas: God and Action (1979), an advanced linguistic discussion of St. Thomas' Summa theologica; FERNAND VAN STEENBERGHEN, Thomas Aquinas and Radical Aristotelianism (1980), a study of major aspects of St. Thomas' thought; RALPH McINERNY, Aquinas on Human Action: A Theory of Practice (1992), on his moral philosophy; JEAN PORTER, The Recovery of Virtue: The Relevance of Aquinas for Christian Ethics (1990); ANTHONY KENNY, Aquinas on Mind (1993), an analytic perspective on his philosophical psychology; and UMBERTO ECO, The Aesthetics of Thomas Aquinas (1988; originally published in Italian, 1956), examining his writings and other medieval theories.

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S. Thomae Aquinatis opera omnia : Thomas Aquinas, Typographia Polyglotta, 1882-

D. Thomae Aquinatis opera omnia, 32 vol. : Thomas Aquinas, S. E. Frett顤P. Maré (red.), Ludoricus Vivès, 1871-80

S. Thomae opera omnia, 25 vol. : Thomas Aquinas, Petrus Fiaccadoros, 1852-73

À¯¿Í º»Áú¿¡ ´ëÇÏ¿© : Å丶½º ¾ÆÄû³ª½º, Á¤ÀÇä ¿ª, ¼­±¤»ç, 1994

Àΰ£ÀÇ »ç°í : Å丶½º ¾ÆÄû³ª½º, ¹ÝÀü±Ô ¿ª, ¼­±¤»ç, 1986

½ÅÇдëÀü : Å丶½º ¾ÆÄû³ª½º, Á¤ÀÇä ¿ª, ¼º¹Ù¿À·ÎÃâÆÇ»ç, 1985

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Å丶½º ¾ÆÄû³ª½º : F. ÄÚÇýºÅÏ, °­¼ºÀ§ ¿ª, ¼º¹Ù¿À·ÎÃâÆÇ»ç, 1993

Å丶½º ¾ÆÄû³ª½º : A. ÄÉ´Ï, °­¿µ°è¡¤±èÀÍÇö °ø¿ª, ¼­±¤»ç, 1984

¼º Å丶½º ¾ÆÄû³ª½º : G. K. ü½ºÅ͸¥, ¹Ú°©¼º ¿ª, È«¼º»ç, 1984

Aquinas£ºGod and Action : David B. Burrell, 1979

St. Thomas Aquinas, 1274-1974£ºCommemorative Studies, 2 vol. : Armand A. Maurer (ed.), 1974

Toward Understanding St. Thomas : Marie D. Chenu, 1964

St. Thomas Aquinas : M. C. D'Arcy, Newman Press, 1953

Saint Thomas Aquinas£ºA Biographical Study : Angelus M. Walz, Newman Press, 1951

The Philosophy of St. Thomas Aquinas : Étienne Gilson, 1924

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