St. Thomas
Aquinas (Italian: San Tommaso d'Aquino) was a Christian philosopher
who developed his own conclusions from Aristotelian
premises, notably in the metaphysics of personality, creation, and
Providence; a theologian responsible in his two masterpieces, the Summa theologiae and
the Summa
contra gentiles, for the classical systematization of Latin theology;
and a poet who wrote some of the most gravely beautiful eucharistic hymns in
the church's liturgy. Although many modern Roman Catholic theologians do not
find St. Thomas altogether congenial, he is nevertheless recognized by the
Roman Catholic Church as its foremost Western philosopher and theologian.
(see also Thomism, Christianity)
Thomism refers both to the doctrinal system of St. Thomas Aquinas and to
the explanations and developments made by his followers. The main phases in
the philosophical and theological tradition of the Thomistic school are the
personal synthesis of St. Thomas, the work of the great commentators, and
the modern revival.
Thomas was born in 1224 or 1225, at Roccasecca, near Aquino, on the road
from Rome to Naples, where his parents were in possession of a modest feudal
domain on a boundary constantly disputed by the emperor and the pope. His
father was of Lombard origin; his mother was of the later invading Norman
strain. His people were distinguished in the service of Emperor Frederick II
during the civil strife in southern Italy between the papal and imperial
forces. Thomas was placed in the monastery of Monte Cassino near his home as
an oblate (i.e.,
offered as a prospective monk) when he was still a young boy; his family
doubtless hoped that he would someday become abbot to their advantage. In
1239, after nine years in this sanctuary of spiritual and cultural life,
young Thomas was forced to return to his family when the Emperor expelled
the monks because they were too obedient to the Pope. He was then sent to
the University of Naples, recently founded by the Emperor, where he first
encountered the scientific and philosophical works that were being
translated from the Greek and the Arabic. In this setting Thomas decided to
join the Friars Preachers, or Dominicans, a new
religious order founded 30 years earlier, which departed from the
traditional paternalistic form of government for monks to the more
democratic form of the mendicant friars (i.e.,
religious orders whose corporate as well as personal poverty made it
necessary for them to beg alms) and from the monastic life of prayer and
manual labour to a more active life of preaching and teaching. By this move
he took a liberating step beyond the feudal world into which he was born and
the monastic spirituality in which he was reared. A dramatic episode marked
the full significance of his decision. His parents had him abducted on the
road to Paris, where his shrewd superiors had immediately assigned him so
that he would be out of the reach of his family but also so that he could
pursue his studies in the most prestigious and turbulent university of the
time.
Thomas held out stubbornly against his family despite a year of
captivity. He was finally liberated and in the autumn of 1245 went to Paris
to the convent of Saint-Jacques, the great university centre of the
Dominicans; there he studied under Albertus
Magnus, a tremendous scholar with a wide range of intellectual
interests.
Escape from the feudal world, rapid commitment to the University of
Paris, and religious vocation to one of the new mendicant orders all meant a
great deal in a world in which faith in the traditional institutional and
conceptual structure was being attacked. The encounter between the gospel
and the culture of his time formed the nerve centre of Thomas' position and
directed its development. Normally, his work is presented as the integration
into Christian thought of the recently discovered Aristotelian philosophy,
in competition with the integration of Platonic thought effected by the
Fathers of the Church during the first 12 centuries of the Christian Era.
This view is essentially correct; more radically, however, it should also be
asserted that Thomas' work accomplished an evangelical awakening to the need
for a cultural and spiritual renewal not only in the lives of individual men
but also throughout the church. Thomas must be understood in his context as
a mendicant religious, influenced both by the evangelism of St. Francis of
Assisi, founder of the Franciscan order, and by the devotion to scholarship
of St. Dominic, founder of the Dominican order.
When Thomas Aquinas arrived at the University of Paris, the influx of
Arabian-Aristotelian science was arousing a sharp reaction among believers;
and several times the church authorities tried to block the naturalism and
rationalism that were emanating from this philosophy and, according to many
ecclesiastics, seducing the younger generations. Thomas did not fear these
new ideas, but, like his master Albertus Magnus (and Roger Bacon, also
lecturing at Paris), he studied the works of Aristotle and eventually
lectured publicly on them.
For the first time in history, Christian believers and theologians were
confronted with the rigorous demands of scientific rationalism. At the same
time, technical progress was requiring men to move from the rudimentary
economy of an agrarian society to an urban society with production organized
in trade guilds, with a market economy, and with a profound feeling of
community. New generations of men and women, including clerics, were
reacting against the traditional notion of contempt for the world and were
striving for mastery over the forces of nature through the use of their
reason. The structure of Aristotle's philosophy emphasized the primacy of
the intelligence. Technology itself became a means of access to truth;
mechanical arts were powers for humanizing the cosmos. Thus, the dispute
over the reality of universals--i.e.,
the question about the relation between general words such as
"red" and particulars such as "this red object"--which
had dominated early Scholastic philosophy, was left behind; and a coherent
metaphysics of knowledge and of the world was being developed. (see also
scholasticism)
During the summer of 1248, Aquinas left Paris with Albertus, who was to
assume direction of the new faculty established by the Dominicans at the
convent in Cologne. He remained there until 1252, when he returned to Paris
to prepare for the degree of master of theology. After taking his bachelor's
degree, he received the licentia docendi ("license to
teach") at the beginning of 1256 and shortly afterward finished the
training necessary for the title and privileges of master. Thus, in the year
1256 he began teaching theology in one of the two Dominican schools
incorporated in the University of Paris.
In 1259 Thomas was appointed theological adviser and lecturer to the
papal Curia, then the centre of Western humanism. He returned to Italy,
where he spent two years at Anagni at the end of the reign of Alexander IV
and four years at Orvieto with Urban IV. From 1265 to 1267 he taught at the
convent of Santa Sabina in Rome and then, at the request of Clement IV, went
to the papal Curia in Viterbo. Suddenly, in November 1268, he was sent to
Paris, where he became involved in a sharp doctrinal polemic that had just
been triggered off.
The works of Averroës, the outstanding
representative of Arabic philosophy in Spain, who was known as the great
commentator and interpreter of Aristotle, were just becoming known to the
Parisian masters. There seems to be no doubt about the Islamic faith
of the Cordovan philosopher; nevertheless, he asserted that the structure of
religious knowledge was entirely heterogeneous to rational knowledge: two truths--one
of faith, the other of reason--can,
in the final analysis, be contradictory. This dualism was denied by Muslim
orthodoxy and was still less acceptable to Christians. With the appearance
of Siger
of Brabant, however, and from 1266 on, the quality of Averroës'
exegesis and the wholly rational bent of his thought began to attract
disciples in the faculty of arts at the University of Paris. Thomas Aquinas
rose in protest against his colleagues; nevertheless, the parties retained a
mutual esteem. As soon as he returned from Italy, Thomas began to dispute
with Siger, who, he claimed, was compromising not only orthodoxy but also
the Christian interpretation of Aristotle. Aquinas found himself wedged in
between the Augustinian tradition of thought, now more emphatic than ever in
its criticism of Aristotle, and the Averroists. Radical Averroism was
condemned in 1270, but at the same time Thomas, who sanctioned the autonomy
of reason under faith, was discredited.
In the course of this dispute, the very method of theology was called
into question. According to Aquinas, reason is able to operate within faith
and yet according to its own laws. The mystery of God is expressed and
incarnate in human language; it is thus able to become the object of an
active, conscious, and organized elaboration in which the rules and
structures of rational activity are integrated in the light of faith. In the
Aristotelian sense of the word, then (although not in the modern sense),
theology is a "science"; it is knowledge that is rationally
derived from propositions that are accepted as certain because they are
revealed by God. The theologian accepts authority and faith as his starting
point and then proceeds to conclusions using reason; the philosopher, on the
other hand, relies solely on the natural light of reason. Thomas was the
first to view theology expressly in this way or at least to present it
systematically, and in doing so he raised a storm of opposition in various
quarters. Even today this opposition endures, especially among religious
enthusiasts for whom reason remains an intruder in the realm of mystical
communion, contemplation, and the sudden ecstasy of evangelical fervour.
The literary form of Aquinas' works must be appreciated in the context of
his methodology. He organized his teaching in the form of
"questions," in which critical research is presented by pro and
con arguments, according to the pedagogical system then in use in the
universities. Forms varied from simple commentaries on official texts to
written accounts of the public disputations, which were significant events
in medieval university life. Thomas' works are divided into three
categories: 1) commentaries on such works as the Old and New Testaments, the Sentences of
Peter Lombard (the official manual of theology in the universities), and the
writings of Aristotle; 2) disputed questions, accounts of his teaching as a
master in the disputations; 3) two summae
or personal syntheses, the Summa
contra gentiles and the Summa
theologiae, which were presented as integral introductions for the use
of beginners. Numerous opuscula ("little works"), which
have great interest because of the particular circumstances that provoked
them, must also be noted.
The logic of Aquinas' position regarding faith and reason required that
the fundamental consistency of the realities of nature be recognized. A physis
("nature") has necessary laws; recognition of this fact
permits the construction of a science according to a logos
("rational structure"). Thomas thus avoided the temptation to
sacralize the forces of nature through a naïve recourse to the
miraculous or the Providence of God. For him, a whole
"supernatural" world that cast its shadow over things and men, in
Romanesque art as in social customs, had blurred men's imaginations. Nature,
discovered in its profane reality, should assume its proper religious value
and lead to God by more rational ways, yet not simply as a shadow of the
supernatural. This understanding is exemplified in the way that Francis of
Assisi admired the birds, the plants, and the Sun.
The inclusion of Aristotle's Physics
in university programs was not, therefore, just a matter of academic
curiosity. Naturalism, however, as opposed to a sacral vision of the world,
was penetrating all realms: spirituality, social customs, and political
conduct. About 1270, Jean de Meun, a French
poet of the new cities and Thomas' neighbour in the Rue Saint-Jacques in
Paris, gave expression in his Roman de
la Rose to the coarsest realism, not only in examining the physical
universe but also in describing and judging the laws of procreation.
Innumerable manuscripts of the Roman poet Ovid's Ars
amatoria ("Art of Love") were in circulation; André le
Chapelain, in his De Deo amoris ("On the God of Love")
adapted a more refined version for the public. Courtly love in its more
seductive forms became a more prevalent element in the culture of the 13th
century.
At the same time, Roman
law was undergoing a revival at the University of Bologna; this
involved a rigorous analysis of the natural law and provided the jurists of
Frederick II with a weapon against ecclesiastical theocracy. The traditional
presentations of the role and duties of princes, in which biblical symbolism
was used to outline beautiful pious images, were replaced by treatises that
described experimental and rational attempts at government. Thomas had
composed such a treatise--De regimine
principum ("On the Government of Princes")--for the King of
Cyprus in 1266. In the administration of justice, juridical investigations
and procedures replaced fanatical recourse to ordeals and to judgments of
God.
In the face of this movement, there was a fear on the part of many that
the authentic values of nature would not be properly distinguished from the
disorderly inclinations of mind and heart. Theologians of a traditional bent
firmly resisted any form of a determinist
philosophy which, they believed, would atrophy liberty, dissolve personal
responsibility, destroy faith in Providence, and deny the notion of a
gratuitous act of creation. Imbued with Augustine's doctrines, they asserted
the necessity and power of grace for a nature torn asunder by sin. The
optimism of the new theology concerning the religious value of nature
scandalized them.
Although he was an Aristotelian, Thomas Aquinas was certain that he could
defend himself against a heterodox interpretation of "the
Philosopher," as Aristotle was known. Thomas held that human liberty
could be defended as a rational thesis while admitting that determinations
are found in nature. In his theology of Providence, he taught a continuous
creation, in which the dependence of the created on the creative wisdom
guarantees the reality of the order of nature. God moves sovereignly all
that he creates; but the supreme government that he exercises over the
universe is conformed to the laws of a creative Providence that wills each
being to act according to its proper nature. This autonomy finds its highest
realization in the rational creature: man is literally self-moving in his
intellectual, volitional, and physical existence. Man's freedom, far from
being destroyed by his relationship to God, finds its foundation in this
very relationship. "To take something away from the perfection of the
creature is to abstract from the perfection of the creative power
itself." This metaphysical axiom, which is also a mystical principle,
is the key to St. Thomas' spirituality. (see also free
will)
At Easter time in 1272, Thomas returned to Italy to establish a Dominican
house of studies at the University of Naples. This move was undoubtedly made
in answer to a request made by King Charles of Anjou, who was anxious to
revive the university. After participating in a general chapter, or meeting,
of the Dominicans held in Florence during Pentecost week and, having settled
some family affairs, Thomas resumed his university teaching at Naples in
October and continued it until the end of the following year.
Although Thomas' argument with the Averroists had for years been matched
by a controversy with the Christian masters who followed the traditional
Augustinian conception of man as fallen, this latter dispute now became more
pronounced. In a series of university conferences in 1273, Bonaventure,
a Franciscan friar and a friendly colleague of Thomas at Paris, renewed his
criticism of the Aristotelian current of thought, including the teachings of
Thomas. He criticized the thesis that philosophy is distinct from theology,
as well as the notion of a physical nature that has determined laws; he was
especially critical of the theory that the soul is bound up with the body as
the two necessary principles that make up the nature of man and also reacted
strongly to the Aristotelians' denial of the Platonic-Augustinian theory of
knowledge based upon exemplary Ideas or Forms.
The disagreement was profound. Certainly, all Christian philosophers
taught the distinction between matter and spirit. This distinction, however,
could be intelligently held only if the internal relationship between matter
and spirit in individual human beings was sought. It was in the process of
this explanation that differences of opinion arose--not only intellectual
differences between idealist and realist philosophers but also emotional
differences. Some viewed the material world merely as a physical and
biological reality, a stage on which the history of spiritual persons is
acted out, their culture developed, and their salvation or damnation
determined. This stage itself remains detached from the spiritual event, and
the history of nature is only by chance the setting for the spiritual
history. The history of nature follows its own path imperturbably; in this
history, man is a foreigner, playing a brief role only to escape as quickly
as possible from the world into the realm of pure spirit, the realm of God.
Thomas, on the contrary, noted the inclusion of the history of nature in
the history of the spirit and at the same time noted the importance of the
history of spirit for the history of nature. Man
is situated ontologically (i.e., by his very existence) at the
juncture of two universes, "like a horizon of the corporeal and of the
spiritual." In man there is not only a distinction between spirit and
nature but there is also an intrinsic homogeneity of the two. Aristotle
furnished Aquinas with the categories necessary for the expression of this
concept: the soul is the "form" of the body. For Aristotle, form
is that which makes a thing to be what it is; form and matter--that out of
which a thing is made--are the two intrinsic causes that constitute every
material thing. For Thomas, then, the body is the matter and the soul is the
form of man. The objection was raised that he was not sufficiently
safeguarding the transcendence of the spirit, the doctrine that the soul
survives after the death of the body.
In January 1274 Thomas Aquinas was personally summoned by Gregory X to
the second Council of Lyons, which was an attempt to repair the schism
between the Latin and Greek churches. On his way he was stricken by illness;
he stopped at the Cistercian abbey of Fossanova, where he died on March 7,
1274. In 1277 the masters of Paris, the highest theological jurisdiction in
the church, condemned a series of 219 propositions; 12 of these propositions
were theses of Thomas. This was the most serious condemnation possible in
the Middle Ages; its repercussions were felt in the development of ideas. It
produced for several centuries a certain unhealthy spiritualism that
resisted the cosmic and anthropological realism of Aquinas.
The biography of Thomas Aquinas is one of extreme simplicity; it
chronicles little but some modest travel during a career devoted entirely to
university life: at Paris, the Roman Curia, Paris again, and Naples. It
would be a mistake, however, to judge that his life was merely the quiet
life of a professional teacher untouched by the social and political affairs
of his day. The drama that went on in his mind and in his religious life
found its causes and produced its effects in the university. In the young
universities all the ingredients of a rapidly developing civilization were
massed together, and to these universities the Christian Church had
deliberately and authoritatively committed its doctrine and its spirit. In
this environment, Thomas found the technical conditions for elaborating his
work--not only the polemic occasions for turning it out but also the
enveloping and penetrating spiritual milieu needed for it. It is within the
homogeneous contexts supplied by this environment that it is possible today
to discover the historical intelligibility of his work, just as they
supplied the climate for its fruitfulness at the time of its birth.
Thomas Aquinas was canonized a saint in 1323, officially named doctor of
the church in 1567, and proclaimed the protagonist of orthodoxy during the
modernist crisis at the end of the 19th century. This continuous
commendation, however, cannot obliterate the historical difficulties in
which he was embroiled in the 13th century during a radical theological
renewal--a renewal that was contested at the time and yet was brought about
by the social, cultural, and religious evolution of the West. Thomas was at
the heart of the doctrinal crisis that confronted Christendom when the
discovery of Greek science, culture, and thought seemed about to crush it.
William of Tocco, Aquinas' first biographer, who had known him and was able
to give evidence of the impression produced by his master's teaching, says:
Brother Thomas raised new problems in his teaching, invented a new
method, used new systems of proof. To hear him teach a new doctrine, with
new arguments, one could not doubt that God, by the irradiation of this new
light and by the novelty of this inspiration, gave him the power to teach,
by the spoken and written word, new opinions and new knowledge.
(M.-D.Ch.)
Although making respectful use of Aristotle and the Platonists, Augustine
and the Fathers, Thomas Aquinas developed a distinctive position. His
originality was shown in treating existence (esse) as the supreme act
or perfection of being in God as well as in created things, in reserving the
creative act to God alone, in denying the presence of matter in angels, and
thus in distinguishing between God and creatures by a real composition of
existence and essence as principles in all created beings. Also
characteristic was his teaching that the human soul is a unique subsistent
form, substantially united with matter to constitute human nature. Aquinas
maintained that the immortality of the human soul can be strictly
demonstrated, that there is a real distinction of principles between the
soul and its powers of knowing and willing, and that human knowledge is
based upon sense experience leading to the mind's reflective activity. He
held that both man and lower creatures have a natural tendency or love
toward God, that supernatural grace perfects and elevates our natural
abilities, and that blessedness consists formally in knowing God Himself, a
knowledge accompanied by our full love of God.
This coherent but complex body of Thomistic doctrines was critically
explained and developed during subsequent centuries. Views of St. Thomas on
individuation and the localization of angels, man's nature and the unity of
the world, appeared among the theses condemned in 1277 by Bishop Étienne
Tempier at Paris and by Archbishop Robert Kilwardby at Oxford. At stake were
the manner and extent of using Aristotle and his Arabian commentators in
explaining Christian theology. The later 13th century was crowded with
"correctorial" literature--treatises attacking and defending basic
positions of St. Thomas, especially on the unicity of the human substantial
form and the distinction of essence and existence. His precise meaning was
lost even by some Thomists, who treated essence and existence as distinct
things and overlooked the unifying relation between the substantial form and
existence.
Encouragement toward consulting Aquinas' own writings came with the
adoption of his doctrine by the Dominican Order (1278, 1279, 1286), his
canonization by Pope John XXII (1323), and the special place accorded to his
works at the Council of Trent. The scientific task of analyzing his thought
was executed by a line of devoted commentators during the period 1400-1650.
The first was the Dominican Jean Capréolus (c.
1380-1444), called the Prince of the Thomists, who recognized the need to
make a direct integral study of the texts of St. Thomas. In his Four
Books of Defenses of the Theology of St. Thomas Aquinas, Capréolus
made a systematic use of the sources against the Scotists and Ockhamists.
Another major Dominican commentator was Tomaso de Vio, Cardinal Cajetan, who
made elaborate expositions of St. Thomas' Summa
theologiae and On Being and
Essence. He made his own restatement of the Thomistic arguments and drew
upon many other writings of St. Thomas. Cajetan's independence was displayed
in his work On the Analogy of Names, where he proposed the
influential division of kinds of analogy into inequality, attribution, and
proportionality, as well as in his opinion that the human soul's immortality
can be supported only by probable reasons.
The classical commentary on St. Thomas' Summa contra gentiles was
done by the Dominican Francesco Sylvestri of Ferrara (c.
1474-1528), who showed the importance of this work for the relation of faith
and philosophy, the meaning of person, and the desire of God. After the
mid-16th century, the Thomistic commentators became involved in the
intricate theological controversies on grace and premotion. Highly
systematized presentations of opposing views were introduced into the
commentaries on the Summa theologiae made by the Spanish Dominican
theologian Domingo Bañez and the Spanish Jesuit authors Francis
Toletus and Gabriel Vázquez. But the new Renaissance tendency to give
separate treatment to philosophical and theological issues, as well as the
pressures of seminary education, undermined the usefulness of the commentary
form of approach to St. Thomas. A new trend is present in the Dominican John
of St. Thomas (1589-1644), who issued a separate Cursus Philosophicus
("Course in Philosophy") and then a Cursus
Theologicus ("Course in Theology") in Thomistic thought. Using
the framework of logic, philosophy of nature, and metaphysics, John
assembled the philosophical teachings of St. Thomas under these systematic
headings and reformulated the material for students who would then study
theology. There were original features in his logic, including the
distinction between formal and objective concepts and the stress on
intentional signs.
Throughout the 17th and 18th centuries, Thomism continued to be presented
in philosophy and theology courses or manuals, especially in the Dominican
Order. Most Thomistic manuals of this period were watered with the opinions
of other Schoolmen and remained remote from modern problems. In most
Catholic seminaries and universities of the early 19th century, eclecticism
was the rule and more attention was paid to Descartes, Locke, and Wolff than
to Aquinas. The modern revival of authentic Thomism began at this time in
Italy. Vincent Buzzetti (1777-1824) and the Jesuit teacher Serafino Sordi
(1793-1865) were instrumental in urging a direct study of the text of
Aristotle and Aquinas. The revolutions of 1848 had a decisive influence upon
both the Holy See and the Society of Jesus toward finding sound principles
on God, man, and society in the works of St. Thomas. In editions of their
philosophy manuals appearing after 1850, this renewal of Thomistic thought
was advocated by three influential Jesuit writers in Italy and Germany:
Luigi Taparelli d'Azeglio, Matteo Liberatore, and Joseph Kleutgen. Their own
positions in epistemology, metaphysics, and social theory remained eclectic,
but they did give impetus to the work of studying St. Thomas and the other
Schoolmen in the light of modern intellectual and social issues.
Decisive support for this movement came with Pope Leo XIII's encyclical Aeterni
Patris (1879). It noted the importance of sound doctrine for meeting
today's problems and called for a restoration of the Christian philosophy of
the Fathers and medieval Doctors, augmented where necessary by the reliable
advances of modern research. Leo asked especially for a recovery of the
wisdom of St. Thomas, whom he hailed as "the special bulwark and glory
of the Catholic Faith." This program required an accurate historical
study of St. Thomas himself and his major commentators, combined with a
readiness to use the evidences and resources of modern learning and science.
St. Thomas was declared the universal patron of Catholic schools, and a
canon (1366, par. 2) in the new Code of Canon Law (1917) required philosophy
and theology teachers to adhere to the method, doctrine, and principles of
St. Thomas. This established the special authority of the Common Doctor in
the church's teaching institutions, without impairing the recovery of all
the other sources of Christian thought, the careful discussion of commonly
recognized difficulties, and the effort to evaluate modern teachings.
Thomists of the 20th century concentrated upon two major tasks: a
historical investigation of St. Thomas' doctrine in its medieval context and
a rethinking of that doctrine in reference to contemporary problems. Pioneer
historians were Pierre Mandonnet and Martin Grabmann, who investigated the
life of Aquinas, the canon of his writings, and his historical
relationships. The setting of Thomistic doctrine in the wider medieval
intellectual currents was described by Maurice de Wulf and Étienne
Gilson. The latter also brought out the basic role of existence in Thomistic
metaphysics, which he contrasted with other historical forms of metaphysics.
Some general presentations of Thomistic thought were made by showing the
development of the principles of act and potency in the major areas of
philosophy. The Dominican R. Garrigou-Lagrange stressed the problem of God
and providence; A. Sertillanges, another Dominican, made the act of creation
central to his exposition; the Jesuit Martin D'Arcy brought out the dynamic
and effective aspects in the mind of Aquinas.
At the University of Louvain, Désiré-Joseph Cardinal
Mercier and his associates concentrated on the challenge of modern thought
for Thomism. They treated the epistemological issue at the outset of
philosophy, so that metaphysics might have the support of a well-founded
realism. The aim of Joseph Maréchal was to reformulate the major
thinkers, especially St. Thomas, in terms of the mind's dynamic affirmation
of being and ultimate reference to the reality of God. Francesco Olgiati
used a metaphysical realism of substance to establish the critical relevance
of Thomism to Cartesian and empiricist thinkers. How to unite the various
kinds of methods and knowledges in a human order was the main concern of
Jacques Maritain, but he also applied the Thomistic concept of person and
community to the problem of democracy.
After World War II, Thomists faced three major tasks: to develop an
adequate philosophy of science, to take account of the phenomenological and
psychiatric findings on man, and to evaluate the ontologies of
existentialism and naturalism. (J.D.Co.)
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