1 Introduction

2 Philosophy of science

• 2.1.1 NATURE, SCOPE, AND RELATIONS OF THE SUBJECT
• 2.1.2 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT
  • 2.1.2.1 Classical and medieval periods: the beginnings of a philosophy of nature.
  • 2.1.2.2 The Renaissance and after: from manifesto to critique.
  • 2.1.2.3 Through World War I: philosophy of classical physics.
  • 2.1.2.4 The 20th-century debate: Positivists versus historians.
• 2.1.3 ELEMENTS OF SCIENTIFIC ENTERPRISE
  • 2.1.3.1 Empirical data and their theoretical interpretation.
  • 2.1.3.2 The empirical procedures of science.
  • 2.1.3.3 The formal structures of science.
  • 2.1.3.4 Conceptual change and the development of science.
• 2.1.4 MOVEMENTS OF SCIENTIFIC THOUGHT
  • 2.1.4.1 Discovery and rationality.
  • 2.1.4.2 Validation and justification.
  • 2.1.4.3 Unification, pluralism, and reductionism.
• 2.1.5 PHILOSOPHICAL STATUS OF SCIENTIFIC THEORY
  • 2.1.5.1 Status of scientific propositions and concepts or entities.
  • 2.1.5.2 Philosophical analysis and scientific practice.
• 2.1.6 INTERRELATIONSHIPS OF SCIENCE AND CULTURE

3 Philosophy of nature

• 3.1.1 PHILOSOPHY OF PHYSICS
  • 3.1.1.1 Physics as a field of inquiry.
    • 3.1.1.1.1 Essential features.
    • 3.1.1.1.2 Historical sketch.
  • 3.1.1.2 Basic characteristics and parameters of the natural order.
    • 3.1.1.2.1 Framework of the natural order.
    • 3.1.1.2.2 Contents of the natural order.
    • 3.1.1.2.3 Modalities of the natural order.
    • 3.1.1.2.4 Levels of the natural order.
  • 3.1.1.3 Special problems in the philosophy of physics.
    • 3.1.1.3.1 Problems at the formal level.
    • 3.1.1.3.2 Problems at the quantum level.
    • 3.1.1.3.3 Problems at the macrophysical level.
    • 3.1.1.3.4 Problems at the cosmological level.
• 3.1.2 PHILOSOPHY OF BIOLOGY
  • 3.1.2.1 The range of topics.
  • 3.1.2.2 The nature of biological systems.
    • 3.1.2.2.1 Origin and definition of life.
    • 3.1.2.2.2 Viewpoints on the nature of life.
    • 3.1.2.2.3 Organisms as systems.
  • 3.1.2.3 Philosophy in evolution.
    • 3.1.2.3.1 Teleology and determinism.
    • 3.1.2.3.2 The species problem.
    • 3.1.2.3.3 Evolutionary theory.
  • 3.1.2.4 Evolution as a world view.
  • 3.1.2.5 Biology and ethics.
    • 3.1.2.5.1 The question of innate aggressiveness.
    • 3.1.2.5.2 Evolutionary ethics.

    　

4 Philosophy of history

• 4.1.1 SPECULATIVE THEORIES
  • 4.1.1.1 The idea of an order or design in history.
  • 4.1.1.2 Theological origins.
  • 4.1.1.3 Secular approaches: the Enlightenment and beyond.
  • 4.1.1.4 The new science: Vico and Herder.
  • 4.1.1.5 History as a process of dialectical change: Hegel and Marx.
  • 4.1.1.6 Twentieth-century systems.
• 4.1.2 ANALYTICAL PROBLEMS
  • 4.1.2.1 The concept of history.
  • 4.1.2.2 Explanation and understanding.
  • 4.1.2.3 Objectivity and evaluation.
  • 4.1.2.4 Conclusions.

  　

5 Philosophy of religion

• 5.1.1 RELIGION AS A FACT IN HUMAN EXPERIENCE, CULTURE, AND HISTORY
  • 5.1.1.1 The findings of psychology.
  • 5.1.1.2 The findings of sociology.
  • 5.1.1.3 The findings of the history of religions.
  • 5.1.1.4 The role of religion in culture.
• 5.1.2 VIEWS WITH TRANSCENDENT REFERENCES
  • 5.1.2.1 Relation to an ultimate power or being, to values, or to ideals.
  • 5.1.2.2 Seeking salvation in a life beyond.
• 5.1.3 VIEWS WITH ANTHROPIC REFERENCES
  • 5.1.3.1 Inner attitudes and dispositions.
  • 5.1.3.2 Behavioral discipline with prescribed practices.
  • 5.1.3.3 Participation in a social institution.
• 5.1.4 THE VIEW FROM WITHIN AS PRIVILEGED
• 5.1.5 THE DIMENSION OF RELIGION FOR INSIDERS
  • 5.1.5.1 The essence or core of religion.
  • 5.1.5.2 The subjective and objective aspects of religion.
  • 5.1.5.3 Effects of religious beliefs and practices.
• 5.1.6 INTERNAL CRITICISMS OF RELIGION
• 5.1.7 THE REJECTION OF RELIGION OR RELIGIOUSNESS
  • 5.1.7.1 Rejections on the grounds of alleged incoherence.
    • 5.1.7.1.1 Alleged logical incoherence.
    • 5.1.7.1.2 Alleged moral incoherence.
  • 5.1.7.2 Other grounds for the rejection of religion.
    • 5.1.7.2.1 Rejection of historical beliefs, practices, and institutions as spurious or irrelevant.
    • 5.1.7.2.2 Rejection of religious sentiments or dispositions as valueless.
    • 5.1.7.2.3 Naturalistic or skeptical views of the origin and development of religion.
• 5.1.8 THE ACKNOWLEDGMENT OF RELIGION OR RELIGIOUSNESS AS VALID
  • 5.1.8.1 Traditional justifications.
    • 5.1.8.1.1 Religion as pointing to an ultimate power, being, or value.
    • 5.1.8.1.2 Religion as producing wholesome spiritual or moral effects.
  • 5.1.8.2 Alternatives to traditional beliefs, practices, and institutions.
    • 5.1.8.2.1 The quest for authentic existence.
    • 5.1.8.2.2 Secular religion.
    • 5.1.8.2.3 Marxism.
• 5.1.9 HISTORY OF THE PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION
  • 5.1.9.1 Developments in the West.
    • 5.1.9.1.1 Ancient and medieval concepts.
    • 5.1.9.1.2 Modern concepts.
  • 5.1.9.2 Developments in the East.
    • 5.1.9.2.1 Buddhist concepts.
    • 5.1.9.2.2 Confucian, Taoist, and Japanese concepts.
    • 5.1.9.2.3 Hindu concepts.
    • 5.1.9.2.4 Islamic concepts.
  • 5.1.9.3 East and West: common ground.
• 5.1.10 BASIC THEMES AND PROBLEMS IN THE PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION
  • 5.1.10.1 The problem of God, the Absolute, or the supreme value.
    • 5.1.10.1.1 The existence of God.
    • 5.1.10.1.2 The nature of God.
    • 5.1.10.1.3 The knowledge of God.
  • 5.1.10.2 Special problems.
    • 5.1.10.2.1 Freedom.
    • 5.1.10.2.2 Self-identity and immortality.
    • 5.1.10.2.3 Evil and suffering.
• 5.1.11 THE PRESENT SITUATION IN THE PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION

6 Philosophy of art

• 6.1.1 DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERISTICS
• 6.1.2 THE INTERPRETATION OF ART
• 6.1.3 THE MEDIUMS OF ART
  • 6.1.3.1 Classifying arts by their mediums.
    • 6.1.3.1.1 Visual art.
    • 6.1.3.1.2 Auditory art.
    • 6.1.3.1.3 Verbal art.
    • 6.1.3.1.4 Mixed arts.
  • 6.1.3.2 Differences in the arts related to mediums.
    • 6.1.3.2.1 Literary and nonliterary.
    • 6.1.3.2.2 The translation problem.
    • 6.1.3.2.3 The question of correspondence to actuality.
• 6.1.4 ART AS IMITATION (REPRESENTATION)
  • 6.1.4.1 Analysis of representation.
  • 6.1.4.2 Subject matter.
  • 6.1.4.3 Symbols in art.
  • 6.1.4.4 Meaning.
• 6.1.5 ART AS EXPRESSION
  • 6.1.5.1 Expression in the creation of art.
  • 6.1.5.2 The expressive product.
• 6.1.6 ART AS FORM
  • 6.1.6.1 The formalist position.
  • 6.1.6.2 Formal principles in art.
    • 6.1.6.2.1 Organic unity.
    • 6.1.6.2.2 Complexity, or diversity.
    • 6.1.6.2.3 Theme and thematic variation.
    • 6.1.6.2.4 Development, or evolution.
    • 6.1.6.2.5 Balance.
• 6.1.7 PRAGMATIC THEORIES OF ART
  • 6.1.7.1 Hedonistic theories of art.
  • 6.1.7.2 Art as a means to truth or knowledge.
  • 6.1.7.3 Art as a means to moral improvement.
    • 6.1.7.3.1 Moralism.
    • 6.1.7.3.2 Aestheticism.
    • 6.1.7.3.3 Mixed positions.

    　

7 Philosophy of logic

• 7.1.1 LOGIC AS A DISCIPLINE
  • 7.1.1.1 Nature and varieties of logic.
  • 7.1.1.2 Features and problems of logic.
    • 7.1.1.2.1 Logical semantics.
    • 7.1.1.2.2 Limitations of logic.
    • 7.1.1.2.3 Logic and computability.
• 7.1.2 ISSUES AND DEVELOPMENTS IN THE PHILOSOPHY OF LOGIC
  • 7.1.2.1 Meaning and truth.
    • 7.1.2.1.1 Logical semantics of modal concepts.
    • 7.1.2.1.2 Intensional logic.
    • 7.1.2.1.3 Logic and information.
  • 7.1.2.2 Problems of ontology.
    • 7.1.2.2.1 Individuation.
    • 7.1.2.2.2 Existence and ontology.
  • 7.1.2.3 Alternative logics.
• 7.1.3 LOGIC AND OTHER DISCIPLINES
  • 7.1.3.1 Technical disciplines.
    • 7.1.3.1.1 Mathematics.
    • 7.1.3.1.2 Computers.
    • 7.1.3.1.3 Methodology of the empirical sciences.
  • 7.1.3.2 Human disciplines.
    • 7.1.3.2.1 Linguistics.
    • 7.1.3.2.2 Psychology.
    • 7.1.3.2.3 Law.
    • 7.1.3.2.4 Education.

    　

8 The nature of mathematics

• 8.1.1 CRITICAL QUESTIONS
  • 8.1.1.1 Types relating to numbers.
  • 8.1.1.2 Types relating to geometry.
  • 8.1.1.3 Nature of cardinal numbers.
  • 8.1.1.4 Nature of ordinal numbers.
  • 8.1.1.5 Cantor's infinite numbers.
  • 8.1.1.6 The data of analysis.
• 8.1.2 DEFINITION OF MATHEMATICS
  • 8.1.2.1 Geometry.
  • 8.1.2.2 Classes and relations.
• 8.1.3 APPLIED MATHEMATICS
  • 8.1.3.1 Selection of topics.
  • 8.1.3.2 Existence of applied mathematics.

  　

9 Western philosophy of law

• 9.1.1 PROBLEMS OF THE PHILOSOPHY OF LAW
  • 9.1.1.1 Various approaches.
    • 9.1.1.1.1 Analytical jurisprudence.
    • 9.1.1.1.2 Sociological jurisprudence.
    • 9.1.1.1.3 The theory of justice.
  • 9.1.1.2 Law, morality, and natural law.
• 9.1.2 HISTORICAL SURVEY OF LEGAL THEORIES
  • 9.1.2.1 The ancient world.
    • 9.1.2.1.1 Greek thought.
    • 9.1.2.1.2 Roman thought.
    • 9.1.2.1.3 Hebrew thought.
  • 9.1.2.2 The Middle Ages.
    • 9.1.2.2.1 Augustine.
    • 9.1.2.2.2 Scholasticism.
    • 9.1.2.2.3 Machiavelli.
    • 9.1.2.2.4 Natural law and social-contract theory.
    • 9.1.2.2.5 Judicial supremacy.
    • 9.1.2.2.6 Decline of natural law.
    • 9.1.2.2.7 "Idealism" and justice.
  • 9.1.2.3 The 19th and 20th centuries.
    • 9.1.2.3.1 Analytical Positivism.
    • 9.1.2.3.2 Historical Positivism.
    • 9.1.2.3.3 Economic interpretations.
    • 9.1.2.3.4 Sociological jurisprudence.
    • 9.1.2.3.5 Revival of natural-law theories.
    • 9.1.2.3.6 Pure theory of law.
    • 9.1.2.3.7 Modern schools of realism.
• 9.1.3 THE STATUS OF CONTEMPORARY PHILOSOPHY OF LAW
  • 9.1.3.1 Growth of the sociological school.
  • 9.1.3.2 The future of sociological jurisprudence.

  　

10 Philosophy of education

• 10.1.1 COMMON ASSUMPTIONS ABOUT HUMAN LEARNING
  • 10.1.1.1 Symbolization.
  • 10.1.1.2 Human motivation.
  • 10.1.1.3 Human capacity to learn.
  • 10.1.1.4 Complexity of human learning.
  • 10.1.1.5 Intellectual-emotional-physical-volitional integrity of learning.
• 10.1.2 DIFFERING CONCEPTIONS OF EDUCATION
  • 10.1.2.1 Model theories of the educated person.
    • 10.1.2.1.1 Platonic view.
    • 10.1.2.1.2 Thomist view.
    • 10.1.2.1.3 Lockean view.
    • 10.1.2.1.4 Naturalistic view.
    • 10.1.2.1.5 Marxist view.
    • 10.1.2.1.6 Pragmatist view.
    • 10.1.2.1.7 Behaviourist view.
    • 10.1.2.1.8 Existentialist view.
  • 10.1.2.2 Areas of disagreement among educational theorists.
    • 10.1.2.2.1 Conceptions of what constitutes knowledge.
    • 10.1.2.2.2 Conceptions of how knowledge should be communicated.
    • 10.1.2.2.3 Conceptions of the purpose of education.
    • 10.1.2.2.4 Conceptions of uniform versus differential grouping.
    • 10.1.2.2.5 Conceptions of control and discipline.
    • 10.1.2.2.6 Conceptions of the need for competition and collaboration.
    • 10.1.2.2.7 Conceptions of the boundaries of formal education.

11 Bibliography

• Philosophy of science:
• Philosophy of physics:
• Philosophy of biology:
• Philosophy of history:
• Philosophy of religion:
• Philosophy of art:
• Philosophy of logic:
• Philosophy of law:
• Philosophy of education:

1 Introduction

It is no longer possible for any one individual to be a leader in all branches of learning. Perhaps Leibniz, who died in 1716, was the last universal scholar, and his life is a warning rather than an example. In such a situation the enterprise of philosophy is in a sense more difficult than ever before; no one can hope to contribute much to the clarification of ideas in logic who is not himself a logician, or to the clarification of ideas in physics who is not himself a physicist, and so on throughout the fields of specialized knowledge. It thus seems inevitable that there should have evolved philosophical disciplines corresponding to the various branches of study and providing the frameworks upon which they may be studied and evaluated in and of themselves. (Discussions of particular schools of philosophy mentioned in this article are found in PHILOSOPHICAL SCHOOLS AND DOCTRINES, WESTERN .) (Ed.)