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Saint Augustine

¾Æ¿ì±¸½ºÆ¼´©½º


I. Introduction

II. Youth and conversion.

1. Influence of Manichaeism.

2. Influence of Neoplatonism.

3. Conversion to Christianity.

III. Bishop and Christian philosopher.

1. Theory of the universe.

2. Theory of knowledge.

3. Ethics.

IV. Struggle with the Donatist schism.

V. Struggle with the Pelagian heresy.

VI. The influence of Augustine.

VII. Major Works

VIII. Bibliography

1. Biography:

2. Thought:

3. Theology:

4. Special topics:

I. °³¿ä

II. ¾î¸°½ÃÀý°ú ȸ½É

1. ¸¶´Ï±³ÀÇ ¿µÇâ

2. ½ÅÇöóÅæÁÖÀÇÀÇ ¿µÇâ

3. ±×¸®½ºµµ±³·Î ȸ½É

III. ÁÖ±³ ¹× ±×¸®½ºµµ±³ öÇÐÀÚ ¾Æ¿ì±¸½ºÆ¼´©½º

1. ¿ìÁÖ·Ð

2. Áö½Ä·Ð

3. À±¸®ÇÐ

IV. µµ³ªÅõ½ºÆÄ ºÐ¸®ÁÖÀÇ¿Í ÅõÀï

V. ÀÌ´Ü Æç¶ó±â¿ì½ºÁÖÀÇ¿Í ÅõÀï

VI. ¾Æ¿ì±¸½ºÆ¼´©½ºÀÇ ¿µÇâ

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I. Introduction

I.    °³¿ä

Saint Augustine (in Latin, Augustinus), bishop of Hippo in Roman Africa from 396 to 430, and the dominant personality of the Western Church of his time, is generally recognized as having been the greatest thinker of Christian antiquity. His mind was the crucible in which the religion of the New Testament was most completely fused with the Platonic tradition of Greek philosophy; and it was also the means by which the product of this fusion was transmitted to the Christendoms of medieval Roman Catholicism and Renaissance Protestantism. Aurelius Augustinus, (¿µ)Saint Augustine. Saint Augustine of Hippo¶ó°íµµ Çϸç, ·Î¸¶·É ¾ÆÇÁ¸®Ä«¿¡ ÀÖ´ø µµ½Ã È÷Æ÷ÀÇ ÁÖ±³(396~430)·Î¼­ ´ç½Ã ¼­¹æ±³È¸ÀÇ ÁöµµÀÚÀÌÀÚ °í´ë ±×¸®½ºµµ±³ÀÇ °¡Àå À§´ëÇÑ »ç»ó°¡·Î ÀÏÄþîÁø´Ù.[½Å¾à¼º¼­]¿¡ ³ªÅ¸³­ Á¾±³¼º°ú ±×¸®½º öÇÐÀÇ ÇöóÅæ ÀüÅëÀÌ ±×¿¡°Ô¼­ ¿Ïº®ÇÏ°Ô À¶ÇյǾú´Ù. ±×·¯ÇÑ ±×ÀÇ »ç»óÀº Áß¼¼ ·Î¸¶ °¡Å縯 ¼¼°è·Î À̾îÁ³°í ¸£³×»ó½º ½Ã´ëÀÇ ÇÁ·ÎÅ×½ºÅºÆ®¸¦ ³º¾Ò´Ù.
This unique significance would have belonged to Augustine had he never written the famous Confessions, in which at the age of about 45 he told the story of his own restless youth and of the stormy voyage that had ended, as he believed, 12 years before he put it in writing, in the haven of the Catholic Church. It is easy to forget that the real work of Augustine's life did not begin until the last scene of the Confessions was already receding for him into a remembered past. Moreover, the Confessions themselves are not so much autobiography as they are devotional outpourings of penitence and thanksgiving. Augustine's conscientious memory generally can be trusted for the facts: his reflections upon them are those of the bishop on his knees. This is not to say that, in any attempt to understand or appreciate the mind of the bishop, the Confessions can be neglected. The picture must, however, be drawn in proper proportion; it is essential to avoid giving undue prominence to what should be no more than its background. À¯¸íÇÑ [°í¹é·Ï Confessions]ÀÌ ¾ø¾ú´õ¶óµµ ±×ÀÇ Á߿伺Àº ÀÎÁ¤µÇ¾úÀ» °ÍÀÌ´Ù. 45¼¼ ¶§ ¾´ [°í¹é·Ï]Àº Àß ¾Ë·ÁÁø ´ë·Î 12³â Àü ·Î¸¶ °¡Å縯¿¡ ±ÍÀÇÇÔÀ¸·Î½á ³¡³­ ±×ÀÇ ¹æÈ²°ú À¯³â½ÃÀýÀ» ±â·ÏÇÑ Ã¥ÀÌ´Ù. ±×·±µ¥ Àر⠽¬¿î »ç½ÇÀº, ¾Æ¿ì±¸½ºÆ¼´©½ºÀÇ ÁøÂ¥ ÀÛǰÀÌ [°í¹é·Ï] ÀÌÈÄ¿¡ ³ª¿À±â ½ÃÀÛÇß´Ù´Â Á¡ÀÌ´Ù. °Ô´Ù°¡ [°í¹é·Ï]Àº Àü±â¶ó±âº¸´Ù´Â °¨»ç¿Í ȸ°³¿¡¼­ ³ª¿Â ºÀÇå¹°À̶ó´Â Á¡µµ ¿°µÎ¿¡ µÎ¾î¾ß ÇÒ °ÍÀÌ´Ù. [°í¹é·Ï]¿¡ ³ª¿À´Â À̾߱âµéÀº ¾ç½ÉÀÇ °¡Ã¥À» ´À³¤ ÁÖ±³°¡ ¹«¸­ ²Ý°í ±âµµÇÏ´Â ¸¶À½À¸·Î ±â¾ïÇØ³½ »ç½ÇµéÀ̶ó´Â Á¡ÀÌ´Ù. ±×·¸´Ù°í ¾Æ¿ì±¸½ºÆ¼´©½º¸¦ ÀÌÇØÇÏ´Â µ¥ [°í¹é·Ï]ÀÌ ¾µ¸ð¾ø´Ù´Â ¸»Àº ¾Æ´Ï´Ù. ´Ù¸¸ ±×¸²Àº Àû´çÇÑ ºñ·Ê·Î ±×·ÁÁ®¾ß Çϸç, ¹èÈÄ¿¡ ÀÖ¾î¾ß ÇÒ °ÍÀ» ¾ÕÀ¸·Î ²ø¾î³» Áö³ªÄ£ Âù¾çÀ» ÇØ¼­´Â ¾È µÈ´Ù.

II. Youth and conversion.

II.    ¾î¸°½ÃÀý°ú ȸ½É

Hippo Regius is the modern Annaba on the Algerian coast, in what was then the Roman province of Numidia. Augustine, named Aurelius Augustinus, was born on November 13, 354, of middle-class parents at Tagaste (modern Souk-Ahras), a small town about 45 miles (72 kilometres) to the south. His father, Patricius, was and remained until late in life a pagan; his mother, Monica, was a Christian of intense but simple piety, from whose early teaching Augustine retained a reverence for the "name of Christ" that never left him. But he was not baptized in infancy. He went through primary and secondary schooling and soon displayed such intellectual promise that the modest family funds were banked upon securing him an academic career that would qualify him for government service. As a 19-year-old student at Carthage he was stirred by the reading of a treatise of Cicero--the now lost Hortensius--and was filled with an enthusiasm for "philosophy," which meant not only a devotion to the pursuit of truth but a conviction of the superiority of a life devoted to that pursuit (the vita contemplative) over any aims of secular ambition. The faith of the Catholic Church seemed to him too hopelessly unphilosophical for any man of culture to entertain; and he was easily carried away by the discovery in Manichaeism of a religion that professed to appeal to reason rather than authority.

ÇöÀç ¾ËÁ¦¸® ÇØ¾ÈÀÇ Çö´ë½Ä Ç×±¸ÀÎ È÷Æ÷·¹±â¿ì½º´Â ´ç½Ã¿¡´Â ·Î¸¶ÀÇ ¼ÓÁÖ ´©¹Ìµð¾Æ¿¡ ¼ÓÇØ ÀÖ¾ú´Ù. ¾Æ¿ì±¸½ºÆ¼´©½º´Â °Å±â¼­ ¾à 72§° ¶³¾îÁø Ÿ°¡½ºÅ×(Áö±ÝÀÇ ¼öÅ©¾Æ¶ó½º)¿¡¼­ ž´Ù. ±×°¡ ž °¡Á¤Àº Áß»êÃþÀ̾ú´Ù. ¾Æ¹öÁö ÆÄÆ®¸®Å°¿ì½º´Â ¸»³â±îÁö À̱³µµ·Î ³²¾Æ ÀÖ¾ú´Ù. ¾î¸Ó´Ï ¸ð´ÏÄ«´Â ¿­¼ºÀûÀÌ°í °æ°ÇÇÑ ±×¸®½ºµµ±³µµ¿´´Ù. ¾î¸°½ÃÀý ¾î¸Ó´ÏÀÇ ±³À°À¸·Î ¾Æ¿ì±¸½ºÆ¼´©½º´Â '±×¸®½ºµµÀÇ À̸§'¿¡ ´ëÇØ °æ¿Ü½ÉÀ» ǰ¾ú°í ±× ¿µÇâÀÌ Áö¼ÓµÇ¾ú´Ù. ±×·¯³ª À¯¾Æ¼¼·Ê´Â ¹ÞÁö ¾Ê¾Ò´Ù. ÃÊ¡¤ÁßµîÇб³¸¦ °ÅÄ¡¸é¼­ ¾Æ¿ì±¸½ºÆ¼´©½º°¡ ÁöÀûÀÎ Àç´ÉÀ» º¸ÀÌÀÚ °¡Á·µéÀº Çкñ¸¦ ¸¶·ÃÇØ °ø¹«¿øÀ» ½ÃŰ·Á°í Çß´Ù. 19¼¼ ¶§ Ä«¸£Å¸°í¿¡¼­ ÇлýÀÌ µÈ ±×´Â Áö±ÝÀº À¯½ÇµÈ ŰÄÉ·ÎÀÇ ±Û [È£¸£Åٽÿ콺 Hortensius]¸¦ Àаí Å©°Ô °¨µ¿À» ¹Þ¾Ò´Ù. ±×¶§ºÎÅÍ ±×´Â 'öÇÐ'¿¡ ´ëÇÑ Á¤¿­·Î °¡µæ á´Ù. ±×°ÍÀº ´Ü¼øÈ÷ Áø¸®¸¦ Ãß±¸ÇÑ´Ù´Â Àǹ̰¡ ¾Æ´Ï¶ó ¼¼¼ÓÀûÀÎ ¾ß¸Áº¸´Ù ¸í»óÇÏ´Â »îÀ» ´õ ³´°Ô ¿©°å´Ù´Â ¶æÀÌ´Ù. ±×ÀÇ ´«¿¡ ºñÄ£ °¡Å縯 ±³È¸ÀÇ ½Å¾ÓÀº ¹®È­ÀÎÀÌ ¹Þ¾ÆµéÀ̱⿡´Â ³Ê¹« ºñöÇÐÀûÀ̾ú´Ù. ±×·¡¼­ ¾î´À³¯ ¸¶´Ï±³¸¦ ¾Ë°Ô µÇ¾úÀ» ¶§ ±×´Â ±ÇÀ§º¸´Ù À̼º¿¡ È£¼ÒÇÏ´Â ¸¶´Ï±³¿¡ ½±°Ô ½ÉÃëÇß´Ù.

1. Influence of Manichaeism.

1.    ¸¶´Ï±³ÀÇ ¿µÇâ

The Manichaean system as propagated in the Western Roman Empire was a materialistic dualism that accounted for the creation of the world as the product of a conflict between light and dark substances and for the soul of man as an element of the light entangled in the dark. Manichaeism claimed to be the true Christianity, preaching Christ as the Redeemer who enables the imprisoned particles of light to escape and return to their own region. In the Manichaean Church the higher order of "elect" adhered to a strict regimen of asceticism and celibacy, all physical generation being held to serve the realm of darkness. After an adolescence that probably was no more licentious than was common in his time and country, Augustine had formed a liaison with a woman of low birth by whom he had a son and to whom he remained loyally attached throughout the nine years of his association with the Manichaeans, and he was therefore allowed to join that sect's lower order as one of the "hearers," to whom marriage was permitted as a concession to human weakness.

His first zeal for this "religion of enlightenment" did not last long, however, for the Manichaean experts were intellectually second rate and proved incapable of dealing with the questions he put to them. He became increasingly disillusioned and was already falling into a general agnosticism when, at the age of about 28, he left Carthage, where he had worked as a free-lance teacher of rhetoric, and went to Rome in search of more satisfactory pupils. There he made connections that led to an official professorship at Milan, where the Western emperor then resided.The bishop of Milan was Ambrose, the most eminent Christian churchman of the day. Augustine was introduced to Ambrose but never came to know him well. He went to hear him preach, however, and this, his first contact with the mind of a Christian intellectual, was enough to shake Augustine's prejudice against Catholic teaching. Although he had abandoned the doctrines of Manichaeism, he retained its materialistic presuppositions, which left him still a skeptic with no satisfying alternative to Manichaean notions of ultimate reality. The being of God and the nature and origin of evil remained for him problems as insoluble as they had ever been. (see also Index: good and evil)

¼­·Î¸¶ Á¦±¹¿¡ ÆÛÁ® ÀÖ´ø ¸¶´Ï±³´Â À¯¹°·ÐÀû ÀÌ¿ø·ÐÀ̾ú´Ù. ¼¼»óÀ» ºû°ú ¾îµÒÀÇ ÅõÀïÀÇ »ê¹°·Î º¸°í Àΰ£ÀÇ ¿µÀ» ¾îµÒ ¼Ó¿¡ ÀÖ´Â ºûÀÇ ¿ä¼Ò·Î º¸¾Ò´Ù. ¸¶´Ï±³´Â ½º½º·Î ÂüµÈ ±×¸®½ºµµ±³¶ó°í ÁÖÀåÇϸç, ±×¸®½ºµµ¸¦ ¿Á¿¡ °¤Èù ÀÚ³àµéÀ» Å»Ãâ½ÃÄÑ º»ÇâÀ¸·Î µÇµ¹¾Æ°¡°Ô ÇÏ´Â ÇØ¹æÀÚ·Î º¸¾Ò´Ù. ¸¶´Ï±³È¸¿¡¼­ '¼±ÅõÈ' °íÀ§ ¼ºÁ÷ÀÚµéÀº öÀúÈ÷ ±Ý¿åÀûÀÌ°í µ¶½ÅÀ̾ú´Ù. À°ÀûÀÎ °ÍÀº ¸ðµÎ ¾îµÒÀÇ ¼¼·Â¿¡ ºÀ»çÇÑ´Ù°í »ý°¢Ç߱⠶§¹®ÀÌ´Ù. ¾Æ¿ì±¸½ºÆ¼´©½º´Â ¸¶´Ï±³¿¡ 9³â°£ ¸ö´ã°í ÀÖÀ¸¸é¼­ õÇÑ Áý¾È Ãâ½ÅÀÇ ¿©ÀÚ¿Í ±³Á¦ÇÏ¿© ¾ÆµéÀ» ¾ò¾ú°í ±× ¾ÆµéÀ» ¸÷½Ã ¾Æ²¼´Ù. ±×·¯´Â µ¿¾È 'ûÀÚ'(ôéíº)¶ó´Â ³·Àº Á÷Ã¥À» ¸¶´Ï±³¿¡¼­ ¾ò¾ú´Âµ¥, ±× Á÷Ã¥¿¡´Â À°½ÅÀÇ ¾àÇÔÀÌ ÀÎÁ¤µÇ¾î °áÈ¥ÀÌ Çã¿ëµÇ¾ú´Ù. ±×·¯³ª ÀÌ '°è¸ùÀÇ Á¾±³'¿¡ ´ëÇÑ ¾Æ¿ì±¸½ºÆ¼´©½ºÀÇ ¿­Á¤Àº ¿À·¡ °¡Áö ¸øÇß´Ù. ¸¶´Ï±³ ÁöµµÀÚµéÀÇ ÁöÀû ¼öÁØÀÌ ³·¾Æ ¾Æ¿ì±¸½ºÆ¼´©½ºÀÇ ¹°À½¿¡ ´ëÇØ Á¦´ë·Î ´äº¯ÇÏÁö ¸øÇ߱⠶§¹®ÀÌ´Ù. Á¡Â÷ ȯ¸êÀ» ´À³¤ ±×´Â ²Ï ³Î¸® ÆÛÁ³´ø ¹Ý(Úã)¿µÁöÁÖÀǸ¦ ¼ö¿ëÇß´Ù. ±×¸®ÇÏ¿© 28¼¼°æ ±×µ¿¾È ÀÚÀ¯±³»ç·Î ¼ö»çÇÐÀ» °¡¸£Ä¡´ø Ä«¸£Å¸°í¸¦ ¶°³ª ´õ ³ªÀº ÇлýÀ» ã¾Æ ·Î¸¶·Î °¬´Ù. Ä£ºÐ°ü°è¸¦ ÅëÇØ ±×´Â ´ç½Ã ¼­·Î¸¶ ȲÁ¦°¡ ¸Ó¹°°í ÀÖ´ø ¹Ð¶ó³ë¿¡¼­ Á¤½Ä ±³¼ö·Î ÀÏÇÒ ¼ö ÀÖ¾ú´Ù. ¹Ð¶ó³ëÀÇ ÁÖ±³ ¾Ïºê·Î½Ã¿ì½º´Â ´ç´ë¿¡ °¡Àå ¶Ù¾î³­ ±×¸®½ºµµ±³ ¼ºÁ÷ÀÚ¿´´Ù. ¾Æ¿ì±¸½ºÆ¼´©½º´Â ¾Ïºê·Î½Ã¿ì½º¸¦ ¼Ò°³¹Þ¾ÒÀ¸³ª °¡±îÀÌ ÇÒ ±âȸ°¡ ¾ø¾ú´Ù. ±×·¯³ª ¾Æ¿ì±¸½ºÆ¼´©½º´Â ¾Ïºê·Î½Ã¿ì½ºÀÇ ¼³±³¸¦ µéÀ¸·¯ °¬°í °Å±â¼­ ±×¸®½ºµµ±³ Áö¼º°úÀÇ Ã¹ ¸¸³²ÀÌ ÀÌ·ç¾îÁ³´Ù. ¾Ïºê·Î½Ã¿ì½ºÀÇ ¼³±³´Â ·Î¸¶ °¡Å縯 ±³È¸ÀÇ °¡¸£Ä§¿¡ ´ëÇÑ ¾Æ¿ì±¸½ºÆ¼´©½ºÀÇ Æí°ßÀ» Èçµé¾î³õ±â¿¡ ÃæºÐÇß´Ù. ±×°¡ ¸¶´Ï±³¸¦ ¹ö¸®±â´Â ÇßÁö¸¸ ±×¶§±îÁö À¯¹°·ÐÀû ÀüÁ¦µéÀÌ ³²¾Æ ÀÖ¾î, ±Ã±ØÀû ½ÇÀç¿¡ ´ëÇÑ ¸¶´Ï±³ÀÇ ±³¸®¸¦ ´ëüÇÒ ¸¸ÇÑ ´äÀ» ¹ß°ßÇÏÁö ¸øÇÑ Ã¤ ȸÀÇ¿¡ ºüÁ® ÀÖ¾ú´Ù. ±×¸®ÇÏ¿© ¼³±³¸¦ µéÀº ÈÄ¿¡µµ ÇÏ´À´ÔÀÇ Á¸Àç, ÁËÀÇ º»¼º°ú ±â¿øÀº ¿©ÀüÈ÷ Ç®¸®Áö ¾Ê´Â ¼÷Á¦·Î ³²¾Æ ÀÖ¾ú´Ù.

2. Influence of Neoplatonism.

2.    ½ÅÇöóÅæÁÖÀÇÀÇ ¿µÇâ

The solution of both problems was given to him by a chance introduction to Neoplatonic writings, for which he may well have been prepared by Ambrose's use of them in some of his sermons. Neoplatonism, in the work of the 3rd-century philosopher and mystic Plotinus, its greatest exponent, is a spiritual monism--a philosophical doctrine holding that there is only one reality--according to which the universe exists as a series of emanations or degenerations from absolute unity. From the transcendent One arises self-conscious mind or spirit; from mind comes soul or life; and soul is the intermediary between the spheres of spirit and of sense. Matter is the lowest and last product of the supreme unity; and since the One is also the real and the good, the potentiality of evil is identified with unformed matter as the point of maximum departure from the One. Evil itself is thus the least real of all things, being simply the privation or absence of good. Neoplatonic mysticism relies on the principle that the inward is superior to the outward: to reach the good, which is the real, one must "return into" oneself; for it is the spirit at the heart of man's inmost self that links him to the ultimate unity. (see also Index: Christianity)

In the seventh book of the Confessions, Augustine tells how in such an act of introspection he found God--the "changeless light," at once immanent and transcendent, which is the source of every intuitive recognition of truth and goodness. This discovery of God was more than the conclusion of a process of reasoning: it was a mystical experience, a vision or touch that came and went. But it left behind it the answer to Augustine's unsatisfied questionings. God is light, and evil is darkness, as the Manichaeans said. But neither is a material substance: the changeless light of God is pure spiritual being, and the evil is nonentity, as darkness is but the absence of light.

½ÅÇöóÅæÁÖÀÇÀÇ Àú¼úÀ» Á¢Çϸ鼭 ±× 2°¡Áö ¹®Á¦°¡ µ¿½Ã¿¡ Ç®·È´Ù. ¾Æ¿ì±¸½ºÆ¼´©½º´Â ¾Ïºê·Î½Ã¿ì½ºÀÇ ¼³±³¸¦ ÅëÇØ ½ÅÇöóÅæÁÖÀÇ¿¡ ´ëÇØ ¾î´À Á¤µµ Àͼ÷ÇØÁö°Ô µÇ¾ú´Ù. 3¼¼±âÀÇ Ã¶ÇÐÀÚÀÌÀÚ ½ÅºñÁÖÀÇÀÚÀÎ ÇÃ·ÎÆ¼´©½º¿¡°Ô¼­ ºñ·ÔµÈ ½ÅÇöóÅæÁÖÀÇ´Â ¿ÀÁ÷ ÇϳªÀÇ ½Çü¸¸ ÀÎÁ¤ÇÏ´Â ¿µÀû ÀÏ¿ø·ÐÀÌ´Ù. ±×¿¡ µû¸£¸é ÀÌ ¼¼»óÀº Àý´ë ´ÜÀÏü·ÎºÎÅÍ ÀÏ·ÃÀÇ À¯Ãâ°úÁ¤À» °ÅÃÄ ÀÌ·èµÇ¾ú´Ù°í ÇÑ´Ù. ÃÊ¿ùÀûÀÎ ÀÏÀÚ(ìéíº)¿¡°Ô¼­ ÀÚÀǽÄÀ» °¡Áø Á¤½ÅÀÌ ³ª¿Â´Ù. ±×¸®°í ±× Á¤½ÅÀ¸·ÎºÎÅÍ ¿µÈ¥ ¶Ç´Â »ý¸íÀÌ ³ª¿Â´Ù. ¿µÈ¥Àº Á¤½Å°ú À°°¨ »çÀÌ¿¡ ÀÖ´Â ¸Å°³¹°ÀÌ´Ù. ¹°ÁúÀº ÀÏÀÚÀÇ °¡Àå ³·Àº, ÃÖÈÄÀÇ »ê¹°ÀÌ´Ù. ÇÑÆí ÀÏÀÚ´Â ½ÇÀçÀ̸鼭 ¼±À̱⠶§¹®¿¡ ¾ÇÀÇ ÀáÀ缺À̶õ °á±¹ ÀÏÀÚ¿¡°Ô¼­ °¡Àå ¸Ö¸® ¶³¾îÁø ¹°ÁúÀÌµÇ ¹«ÇüÀÇ ¹°Áú°ú °°Àº °ÍÀ¸·Î ¿©°å´Ù. µû¶ó¼­ ¾ÇÀ̶õ ¸ðµç »ç¹°ÀÇ ÃÖ¼ÒÇÑÀÇ °¡´É¼ºÀÌ¿ä, ¼±ÀÇ °áÇÌ¿¡ Áö³ªÁö ¾Ê¾Ò´Ù. ÇÑÆí ½ÅÇöóÅæ ½ÅºñÁÖÀÇ¿¡´Â ³»¸éÀÌ ¿ÜºÎº¸´Ù ¿ì¿ùÇÏ´Ù´Â ¿øÄ¢ÀÌ ÀÖ¾ú´Ù. ±×·¯¹Ç·Î ¼±¿¡ À̸£·Á¸é '¾ÈÀ¸·Î µé¾î°¡¾ß' Çß´Ù. ±Ã±ØÀû ½ÇÀç¿¡ µµ´ÞÇÏ´Â Á¤½ÅÀº Àΰ£ÀÇ °¡Àå ±íÀº ÀÚ¾ÆÀÇ Á߽ɿ¡ ÀÖ´Ù°í ¹Ï¾ú±â ¶§¹®ÀÌ´Ù.

[°í¹é·Ð] Á¦7±ÇÀ» º¸¸é ¾Æ¿ì±¸½ºÆ¼´©½º°¡ ±×°°Àº ³»¸éÈ­¸¦ °ÅÃÄ ÇÏ´À´ÔÀ» ¹ß°ßÇÑ ´ë¸ñÀÌ ³ª¿Â´Ù. ³»ÀçÀûÀÌ¸ç µ¿½Ã¿¡ ÃÊ¿ùÀûÀÎ, 'º¯ÇÏÁö ¾Ê´Â ºû'ÀÎ ÇÏ´À´ÔÀº ¿ì¸®ÀÇ Á÷°üÀ» ÅëÇØ Áø¸®¿Í ¼±À» ¾Ë·ÁÁÖ´Â ±Ù¿øÀÌ´Ù. ±×·¯ÇÑ ÇÏ´À´ÔÀÇ ¹ß°ßÀº ÇÕ¸®ÀûÀÎ Ã߸®ÀÇ °á·ÐÀ¸·Î ¾ò¾îÁö´Â °ÍÀÌ ¾Æ´Ï¾ú´Ù. ±×°ÍÀº ½ÅºñÀûÀΠüÇèÀÌ¿ä, ȯ»óÀ̸ç, ¿Ô´Ù°¡ »ç¶óÁö´Â Á¢ÃËÀ̾ú´Ù. ÇÏ´À´ÔÀÇ ¹ß°ßÀ¸·Î ¾Æ¿ì±¸½ºÆ¼´©½ºÀÇ ¿À·£ Àǹ®ÀÌ Ç®·È´Ù. ÇÏ´À´ÔÀº ºûÀÌ¸ç ¾ÇÀº ¾îµÒÀÌ´Ù. ±×°ÍÀº ¸¶´Ï±³¿¡¼­ ¸»ÇÑ ¹Ù¿Í °°Áö¸¸ ¾î¶² °Íµµ ¹°ÁúÀº ¾Æ´Ï´Ù. ÇÏ´À´ÔÀÇ ¿µ¿øÇÑ ºûÀº ¼ø¼öÇÏ°Ô Á¤½ÅÀû(¿µÀû) ½ÇüÀ̸ç, ¾îµÒÀÌ ½Çü°¡ ¾Æ´Ï¶ó ºûÀÇ °áÇÌÀ̵íÀÌ ¾ÇÀº ½Çü°¡ ¾Æ´Ï´Ù.

3. Conversion to Christianity.

3.    ±×¸®½ºµµ±³·Î ȸ½É

Augustine's mystical experience, his awareness of God, had been momentary and fleeting. He believed that this could be only because he had not made for himself the necessary total identification of supreme value with spirit; he was still himself entangled with the flesh. In fact, Neoplatonism had reinforced the Manichaean principle that the way of return to God must be through escape from the body; and for Augustine this meant primarily and immediately escape from the ties of sexuality. The immortal story of his conversion in the eighth book of the Confessions tells of his coming to learn of the heroic achievements of Christian asceticism in East and West, of the self-contempt induced in him by the contrast of his own weakness, and of the final breakdown of resistance in a Milan garden, when, at the sound of a child's voice calling "tolle, lege: tolle, lege" ("take up and read"), he opened the New Testament Letters and read in Letter of Paul to the Romans the words, ". . . put on the Lord Jesus Christ, and make no provision for the flesh, to gratify its desires" (Rom. 13:14).

This was in the late summer of the year 386. Vacation was near, and Augustine resigned his teaching chair and went with some young pupils, his son Adeodatus, and his mother Monica to a reading party at a country house lent by a friend. Out of their literary study and philosophical discussions there came the earliest of Augustine's surviving works--the dialogues, which display so little of the storm and stress of a religious conversion and so little concern with specifically Christian themes that critics have been led to question the accuracy of the Confessions story written many years later. It is true that Augustine's struggle against the domination of his sexual nature can be regarded as the final phase in that fluctuating pursuit of the "philosophic life" first presented to him by Cicero's Hortensius. But there is no sufficient reason for doubting that he was a Catholic Christian in intention when he received Baptism at the hands of Ambrose in the spring of 387. It is certain that three or four years later, when he wrote his treatise De vera religione ( Of True Religion), he was still thinking of Christianity in Neoplatonic terms. In this treatise, the divine Word ( Logos) in Christ is the mind or spirit of Plotinus, illuminating the reason, through whom the human soul has access to the transcendent Godhead. Christ's human life is man's example of the ascetic victory over the pains and pleasures of the flesh; Christian morals serve only to purify the soul for the life of contemplation; and Christian faith is the necessary acceptance of the church's authority in this preliminary stage of training.

¾Æ¿ì±¸½ºÆ¼´©½ºÀÇ ½ÅºñüÇè, ÇÏ´À´Ô¿¡ ´ëÇÑ °æÇèÀº ¼ø°£ÀûÀÎ °ÍÀ¸·Î ½±°Ô »ç¶óÁ³´Ù. ±×´Â ÀڱⰡ ÃÖ°í°¡Ä¡¸¦ Á¤½Å(¿µÀûÀÎ °Í)¿¡ µÎÁö ¾Ê°í ¾ÆÁ÷ À°¿¡ ¾ô¸Å¿© Àֱ⠶§¹®À̶ó°í ¹Ï¾ú´Ù. »ç½Ç ½ÅÇöóÅæÁÖÀÇ´Â ¸¶´Ï±³ÀÇ ¿øÄ¢À» ´õ °­È­Çϰí ÀÖ¾ú´Âµ¥, ÇÏ´À´Ô¿¡°Ô µ¹¾Æ°¡·Á¸é À°¿¡¼­ ¶°³ª¾ß ÇÑ´Ù´Â °ÍÀ̾ú´Ù. ¾Æ¿ì±¸½ºÆ¼´©½º¿¡°Ô´Â ¿ì¼± ¼ºÀûÀÎ ¿å¸Á¿¡¼­ Áï°¢ ¶°³ª¶ó´Â Àǹ̷Π¹Þ¾Æµé¿©Á³´Ù. [°í¹é·Ï] Á¦8±Ç¿¡ ³ª¿À´Â À¯¸íÇÑ È¸½É À̾߱â´Â ¾î¶»°Ô ±×°¡ µ¿¼­ÀÇ ±×¸®½ºµµ±³ ±Ý¿åÁÖÀǸ¦ ½ÃÇàÇß´ÂÁö, ¾î´À Á¤µµ ±×°¡ ÀÚ±âÀÇ À°Ã¼Àû ¿¬¾àÇÔ ¶§¹®¿¡ ½º½º·Î¸¦ °æ¸êÇß´ÂÁö º¸¿©ÁÖ°í ÀÖ´Ù. ±×ÀÇ À°Ã¼Àû ÀúÇ×Àº ¸¶Ä§³» ¹Ð¶ó³ëÀÇ Á¤¿ø¿¡¼­ ³¡³µ´Ù. 'Áý¾î ÀÐÀ¸¶ó'(tolle, lege)´Â ¾î¸°¾ÆÀÌÀÇ ¼Ò¸®¿¡ ±×´Â [½Å¾à¼º¼­]¸¦ ÆîÃÄ ¹Ù¿ï·ÎÀÇ [·Î¸¶Àε鿡°Ô º¸³»´Â ÆíÁö]¸¦ Àоú´Ù. "ÁÖ ¿¹¼ö ±×¸®½ºµµ·Î ¿Â¸öÀ» ¹«ÀåÇϽʽÿÀ. ±×¸®°í À°Ã¼ÀÇ Á¤¿åÀ» ¸¸Á·½ÃŰ·Á´Â »ý°¢Àº ¾Æ¿¹ ÇÏÁö ¸¶½Ê½Ã¿À"(·Î¸¶ 13£º14).

386³â ´Ê¿©¸§ÀÇ ÀÏÀ̾ú´Ù. ¹æÇÐÀÌ °¡±î¿üÀ¸¹Ç·Î ±×´Â Çб³¸¦ ¶°³ª ±×ÀÇ Á¦ÀÚµé, ¾Æµé ¾Æµ¥¿À´ÙÅõ½º, ¾î¸Ó´Ï ¸ð´ÏÄ«¿Í ÇÔ²² ½Ã°ñ·Î ³»·Á°¡ Ä£±¸¿¡°Ô ºô¸° Áý¿¡¼­ µ¶¼­È¸¸¦ °¡Á³´Ù. °Å±â¼­ ÇàÇÑ ¹®Çмö¾÷°ú öÇÐÅä·Ð¿¡¼­ ÇöÁ¸ÇÏ´Â ¾Æ¿ì±¸½ºÆ¼´©½ºÀÇ ÃÖÃÊÀÇ Àú¼úµéÀÌ ³ª¿Ô´Ù. ±×°ÍÀº ÁÖ·Î ´ëÈ­µé·Î¼­ Á¾±³Àû ȸ½É¿¡ ´ëÇÑ °­Á¶°¡ º°·Î ¾ø°í ±×¸®½ºµµ±³ÀûÀÎ ÁÖÁ¦µµ º°·Î ´Ù·çÁö ¾Ê°í ÀÖ´Ù. ±×¶§¹®¿¡ ÈξÀ ÈÄ¿¡ ¾º¾îÁø [°í¹é·Ï]ÀÇ Á¤È®¼º¿¡ ´ëÇÑ Àǹ®ÀÌ ÇÐÀÚµé »çÀÌ¿¡ ¸¹ÀÌ Á¦±âµÇ¾ú´Ù. ¼ºÀû º»´É¿¡ ´ëÇÑ ¾Æ¿ì±¸½ºÆ¼´©½ºÀÇ ÅõÀïÀÌ Å°ÄÉ·ÎÀÇ [È£¸£Åٽÿ콺]¸¦ ÀÐ°í °á½ÉÇÑ 'öÇÐÀû »î'ÀÇ ÃÖÁ¾ ±¹¸éÀ̾úÀ½Àº »ç½ÇÀÌ´Ù. ±×·¯³ª 387³â º½, ±×°¡ ¾Ïºê·Î½Ã¿ì½º¿¡°Ô ¼¼·Ê¸¦ ¹ÞÀ» ¶§ ÀÌ¹Ì ±×¸®½ºµµ±³µµ¿´À½À» ºÎÀÎÇÒ ÀÌÀ¯´Â ¾ø´Ù. ¹°·Ð 3, 4³â ÈÄ [ÂüµÈ Á¾±³ De Vera religione]¸¦ ¾µ ¶§±îÁöµµ ±×´Â ±×¸®½ºµµ±³¸¦ ½ÅÇöóÅæ öÇÐÀ¸·Î Ǭ °ÍÀÌ »ç½ÇÀÌ´Ù. [ÂüµÈ Á¾±³]¿¡¼­ ±×¸®½ºµµ ¾È¿¡ ÀÖ´Â ÇÏ´À´ÔÀÇ ¸»¾¸(·Î°í½º)Àº ÇÃ·ÎÆ¼´©½ºÀÇ Á¤½Å°ú °°À¸¸ç, Àΰ£ÀÇ À̼ºÀ» ºñÃß°í Àΰ£À¸·Î ÇÏ¿©±Ý ÃÊ¿ùÀÚ ÇÏ´À´Ô¿¡°Ô µµ´ÞÇϵµ·Ï ÇÑ´Ù. ¶Ç ±×¸®½ºµµÀÇ Àΰ£Àû »îÀº À°ÀûÀÎ °íÅë°ú Äè¶ôÀ» À̰ܳ½ ±Ý¿åÀÇ Ç¥º»À¸·Î ±×·ÁÁ³´Ù. ±×¸®½ºµµ±³ÀÇ µµ´öÀº ¿µÈ¥À» ¸¼°Ô ÇÏ¿© °üÁ¶ÀÇ »î¿¡ À̹ÙÁöÇÑ´Ù°í »ý°¢Çß°í, ÈÆ·ÃÀ» À§ÇØ ±³È¸ÀÇ ±ÇÀ§¸¦ ¹Þ¾ÆµéÀÌ´Â °ÍÀÌ ±×¸®½ºµµ±³ ½Å¾ÓÀ̶ó°í º¸¾Ò´Ù.

III. Bishop and Christian philosopher.

III.    ÁÖ±³ ¹× ±×¸®½ºµµ±³ öÇÐÀÚ ¾Æ¿ì±¸½ºÆ¼´©½º

Shortly after his Baptism, Augustine left Milan, with his mother and a small party of friends, to return to Africa. At Rome's port city of Ostia, his mother died; and Augustine recorded his last talk with her, in which son led mother, through a discourse formed on the pattern of the Neoplatonic "ascent" from this world to the other, to share with him a momentary experience of the life eternal. Home again at Tagaste, the friends formed a little community devoted to the religious life of contemplation and study. But its peace was soon broken when, on a visit to Hippo in 391, Augustine was forced to accept ordination as assistant priest to its old bishop, Valerius. Five years later Valerius died, and Augustine entered the episcopate in which he was to labour until his death. The bishop in Roman Africa was not only the pastor of a parish, the busy teacher and preacher, but the presiding judge in a much-frequented court of summary jurisdiction in civil cases. Augustine never enjoyed robust health, and the vast extent of his literary output was made possible only by the constant services of stenographers and by an extraordinary capacity for the extempore formulation of ordered thought, of which at least 400 sermons remain as proof. He was not a systematic theologian. Much of his writing was in response to the appeals that his growing reputation in the Christian world brought to him for the solution of the most diverse problems. Over 200 of his letters have been preserved, many of them having the scale of minor treatises. He was tireless in controversy with heretics--Manichaeans, Donatists, and Pelagians. But his deepest thought, the real Augustinianism, is to be found in his scripture commentaries and homilies, especially his expositions of the Psalms and his writings on the Gospel and First Letter of John. The characteristic pattern he imposed upon Christian theology was not the outcome of controversy.

The decisive turn was given to his thinking by his ordination to the priesthood, which dragged him against his will from the vita contemplative into the world and at the same time diverted his studies from philosophy to Scripture. The realities of pastoral experience among the very imperfectly Christianized people of an African seaport, together with the rapid impregnation of his mind with the categories of biblical religion, made it impossible for him to overlook the differences between Neoplatonism and Pauline Christianity. The knowledge of God and of the soul always remained from the time of his Baptism the one and only knowledge that he desired; and Plotinus had not been mistaken in bidding him look within himself if he would find God, for the Bible also tells of a likeness to God imprinted on the soul. But although for the Neoplatonist the soul's likeness to God is that of a, so to speak, reduced divinity, for the Christian it is that of a temporal and mutable image of the "eternal and changeless." Augustine was assured that it is the task of a Christian philosophy, guided by the scriptural revelation, to seek to know God through his image in the soul; and this was the path he followed in his great treatise De Trinitate ( On the Trinity). He insisted that a true knowledge of the soul's nature can be based only on the immediate awareness of self-consciousness; and the soul's awareness of itself is of a trinity in unity that reflects "as in a glass darkly" the being of its Maker. He claimed that knowledge of one's own being, of one's own thinking, of one's own willing is not open to doubt; there is an ego that exists, knows, and wills. But in none of these aspects is the ego self-sufficient or independent: it cannot maintain its own being, produce its own knowledge, or satisfy its own desires. Augustine believed that he had learned from the Platonists to find in God "the author of all existences, the illuminator of all truth, the bestower of all beatitude" (De civitate Dei viii, 4). But his theories of the universe, of knowledge, and of ethics were his own. The following three paragraphs summarize these theories.

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1. Theory of the universe.

1.    ¿ìÁÖ·Ð

Creation in Plotinus is motiveless and purposeless, the automatic by-product of the divine self-contemplation; in Augustine its source is "the will of a good God that good things should be" (De civitate Dei xi, 21). The outgoing energy of creative love forms the basic principle of his entire theology. Since nothing can come into being or continue in it but by this divine will to create, all that exists is good "in so far as it has being"; and because there are evidently degrees of goodness, there must also be degrees of being. But even the formless matter that is nearest to "not being" is essentially good because God made it; the origin of evil is not to be sought in material existence. Augustine persistently refused to unload upon the material conditions of human life the responsibility for human wickedness. (see also Index: Christianity)

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2. Theory of knowledge.

2.    Áö½Ä·Ð

Following Plato, Augustine argued that the ability to make true judgments never can be inserted into the mind from outside. The human teacher never can do more than help his pupil to see for himself what he already knew without being aware of it. Augustine's favourite examples of these intuitive judgments are the propositions of mathematics and the appreciation of moral values; they are not the construction of the individual mind, because when properly formulated they are accepted by all minds alike. The individual thinker does not make the truth, he finds it; and he is able to do so because Christ, the revealing Word of God, is the magister interior, the "inward teacher," who enables him to see the truth for himself when he listens to him.

ÇöóÅæÀ» µû¶ó ¾Æ¿ì±¸½ºÆ¼´©½º´Â ÂüµÈ Áö½ÄÀ» ¸¸µå´Â ´É·ÂÀ» ¹Û¿¡¼­ ÁÖÀԵǴ °ÍÀ¸·Î º¸Áö ¾Ê¾Ò´Ù. ±³»ç°¡ ÇÒ ÀÏÀº ÇлýÀÌ ÀÌ¹Ì ¾Ë°í ÀÖµÇ ´Ù¸¸ ÀǽÄÇÏÁö ¸øÇÏ´Â °ÍÀ» ½º½º·Î º¸µµ·Ï µ½´Â µ¥ Áö³ªÁö ¾Ê´Â´Ù°í Çß´Ù. ±×·± Á÷°üÀû Áö½ÄÀÇ ¿¹·Î ¼öÇÐÀû ¸íÁ¦µé°ú µµ´ö°¡Ä¡ÀÇ ÀνÄÀ» µé¾ú´Ù. ±×°ÍµéÀº ¾î´À ÇÑ °³ÀÎÀÌ ¸¸µé¾î³½ °ÍÀÌ ¾Æ´Ï´Ù. ´©±¸³ª ¶È°°ÀÌ ¹Þ¾ÆµéÀ̱⠶§¹®ÀÌ´Ù. »ç»ó°¡´Â Áø¸®¸¦ ¸¸µé¾î³»´Â °ÍÀÌ ¾Æ´Ï¶ó ¹ß°ßÇÏ´Â °ÍÀÌ´Ù. »ç»ó°¡°¡ Áø¸®¸¦ ¹ß°ßÇÏ´Â °ÍÀº °è½ÃÇϽô ÇÏ´À´ÔÀÇ ¸»¾¸ÀÎ ±×¸®½ºµµ°¡ '³»¸éÀÇ ½º½Â'ÀÌ µÇ¾î¼­ ±×¿¡°Ô ±Í±â¿ïÀÌ´Â ÀÚ¸¶´Ù Áø¸®¸¦ ½º½º·Î º¼ ¼ö ÀÖ°Ô Çϱ⠶§¹®ÀÌ´Ù.

3. Ethics.

3.    À±¸®ÇÐ

Augustine accepts the basic assumption of ancient ethical theory that conduct is properly directed to the achievement of eudaimonia--the happiness or well-being that is taken to be the one universal desire of humanity. Augustine's cosmos is an ordered structure in which the degrees of being are at the same time degrees of value. This universal order requires the subordination of what is lower in the scale of being to what is higher: body is to be subject to spirit, and spirit to God. Man must know his place in the order of the universe and, knowing it, must voluntarily accept it; that is, he must set upon himself and upon everything else the relative value that is properly due. Augustine's word for the ethical valuation that influences conduct is amor ("love"). Amor is the moral dynamic that impels man to action. If it is rightly directed man will never set a higher value on what is lower in the scale. All lesser goods are to be "used" as means or aids toward the higher; only the highest is to be "enjoyed" as the ultimate end on which the heart is set. The supreme good in whose fruition alone man reaches his perfection is for Augustine the God whose nature is agape, love in the New Testament sense of the word. If, then, man's love, his amor, can rise to the enjoyment of God, it will become a participation in the divine agape, love itself. God will have given himself to men, and by sharing in his love men will love one another as he loves them, drawing from him the power to give themselves to others.

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IV. Struggle with the Donatist schism.

IV.    µµ³ªÅõ½ºÆÄ ºÐ¸®ÁÖÀÇ¿Í ÅõÀï

The energies of Augustine, both pastoral and literary, were for the first 15 years of his episcopate distracted by the wearisome struggle to end the schism in the African Church that had persisted for nearly a century. The Donatists, a Christian sect (named after Donatus, one of its leaders) the members of which outnumbered the Catholics in the country districts and in many towns, claimed to be the only true church on the ground that their ministry was the only one the succession of which had not been stained by apostasy in the great persecution of the years 303-313, which had begun under the emperor Diocletian. Imperial attempts to suppress the schism had stimulated the martyr spirit that had always marked African Christianity and gained Donatism the support of strong elements in the native population whose grievances were social and economic rather than ecclesiastical. The schism maintained itself by fanatical violence, and Augustine's persevering attempts to settle the questions at issue by peaceful discussion were fruitless. In the end, the imperial government became convinced that the Donatists were a danger to the security of Africa. The Donatist bishops were compelled to meet their Catholic rivals at a formal conference held under an official arbitrator at Carthage in 411, the foregone conclusion of which was a Catholic victory.

Donatists and Catholics agreed that the power of the Holy Spirit is conveyed to the believer through the sacraments, which are administered by the church through the clergy. The Donatists alleged, however, that the sacraments require for their validity a ministry undefiled by serious sin; for the Spirit departs from the sinner, who cannot therefore "confer what he does not possess." Augustine replied that the sacraments convey the Spirit in virtue of Christ's ordinance alone and that this validity is unaffected by the worthiness or unworthiness of the human minister. The church's unity depends on the Spirit's supreme gift of charity, of which schism is the denial. Unfortunately, Augustine, who had for long opposed the use of any means but persuasion to end the schism, eventually was induced to approve the enforcement of legal penalties upon the schismatics, in the interest, as he believed, of the many whose fear of Donatist violence had kept them from returning to the church. His famous saying, "Love, and do what thou wilt," was in fact a defense of compulsion in the service of charity.

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V. Struggle with the Pelagian heresy.

V.    ÀÌ´Ü Æç¶ó±â¿ì½ºÁÖÀÇ¿Í ÅõÀï

As the Donatist controversy was ending, the Pelagians were already beginning to threaten the traditional doctrines of sin and redemption in the Western Church. Pelagius had set himself to resist the slackening of Christian moral standards. Against those who pleaded human frailty in excuse for their failings, he insisted that God has made every man alike free to choose and to perform the good; that it is the essence of sin to be a voluntary act that God's law forbids and that the sinner was free to avoid; and that, were not this freedom real, there could be no justice in God's punishments and rewards. This reduction of Christianity to a bleak moralism could not avoid conflict with the plain implications of the church's sacramental and liturgical practice. Baptism had always been "for the remission of sins," and infants were held to need it because they inherit the guilt of Adam's transgression, which, as St. Paul taught, brought death upon the whole race of men. The doctrine of original sin was firmly established in the Western Church before Augustine's time; and when it was openly rejected by Pelagius' disciple Celestius, there was no escape for Pelagianism from being branded as a heresy. The prevarications of Pelagius were able to persuade Pope Zosimus (417-418) to reverse the condemnation pronounced by his predecessor, Innocent I. But in the spring of 418 the African bishops obtained from the emperor Honorius an edict banishing the heretics; and Zosimus was obliged to come into line.

Augustine was the soul of the Church's resistance. He had seen Pelagianism at once as not merely a denial of the virtue of Christian Baptism but also as a fatal misconception of the relationship between God and man. For to assert that man can achieve righteousness by his own effort is to contradict the fundamental truth that God is the giver of all good.

Before the controversy began, Augustine had worked out his own rationalizations of the doctrines of original sin and divine grace--rationalizations that the church was to prove unwilling to accept fully. He accepted the traditional belief in the fact and in the penal consequences of Adam's transgression, defining the fact as man's refusal to accept his place in the created order, and the consequences as a dislocation of the order of man's own nature--the revolt of flesh against spirit. He argued that not only are all men involved in Adam's guilt and punishment but also that this involvement takes effect through the dependence of human procreation on the sexual passion, in which the spirit's inability to control flesh is evident. It was this linking of original sin with human sexuality that exposed Augustine in his old age to the most damaging criticisms of the Pelagian bishop Julian of Eclanum, who boldly asserted the moral neutrality of the instincts that belong to man's created nature and charged Augustine with relapsing into Manichaeism in his argument that an impulse that a man is bound to fight and conquer must therefore be evil.

For Augustine the fall of man means that in all men the true order of love has been violated. Departing from the love of God above him, man has followed the love of self and become subject to what is below him. Man has fallen by the act of his own will. He cannot by a similar exercise of will reverse the consequences of that fall. The subjection of spirit to flesh is a slavery from which the perverted will has no power to deliver itself, just because it cannot will the deliverance. What is needed is a kind of reversal of gravity--the substitution of an uplifting for a down-dragging love. And Augustine believed that this could happen only by that gracious descent of the divine love to dwell within the sinner: the gospel of the incarnation and of Pentecost.

Pelagius, on the other hand, argued that all men have been created free to do what is right when they see it, and that Christians have received the needed moral enlightenment in Christ's teaching and example. Augustine knew the unreality of the Pelagian conception of freedom as an innate and absolute power of choice, unaffected by circumstances. He pointed to the inescapable conditioning of all moral activity by the situation of the agent--outside whose control are in general not only the presentation of an object but also the kind of feeling that the presentation excites. Moreover, the act of will is dependent on feeling as well as on cognition. In Augustine's words:

Men will not do what is right, either because the right is hidden from them or because they find no delight in it. But that what was hidden may become clear, what delighted not may become sweet--this belongs to the grace of God" (De peccatorum meritis et remissione).

Augustine insisted that without this delight in righteousness there can be no true freedom in well-doing, but only a servile obedience to law. The love of God, which is the motive of the Christian life, must be free. Yet love of God, as St. Paul said, enters man's heart by the gift of the Holy Spirit; and Augustine found it increasingly difficult to leave room in his doctrine of grace for a genuinely free response on man's part to the Spirit's gift. The unexamined assumption that everything in human life must be ascribed either to God's or to man's working compelled him to hold that God alone is the cause of every human movement toward good. In the first year of his episcopate, the study of St. Paul's argument in Rom. 9-11 had convinced him that no event in time can alter the eternal setting of God's will toward any human soul: his elect are chosen before the foundations of the world. God knows--not before, but apart from, the time process--how each individual in the course of time will respond to the particular form in which grace is offered to him; and the elect alone receive the grace that will win their acceptance.

The rigour of this doctrine did not soften in face of the Pelagian challenge. In De civitate Dei (The City of God ), the masterpiece on which Augustine was working throughout the Pelagian controversy, he drew a picture, as majestic as it is appalling, of the "beginnings, course and destined ends" of the two invisible societies of the elect and the damned. The work seems to have been in his mind before the capture of Rome by the Visigoths in 410 had shaken the empire; but it took the form of a Christian apologetic against the pagan claim that the disaster was consequence and punishment of Rome's apostasy from its ancestral religion. Augustine's two cities are not to be identified with the Christian Church and the pagan or secular state. They are symbolic embodiments of the two spiritual powers that have contended for allegiance in God's creation ever since the fall of the angels--faith and unbelief, "the love of self extending to contempt for God, and the love of God extending to contempt of self." Neither power is embodied in its purity in any earthly institution; in this world the heavenly and earthly cities are inextricably intermingled. If there is a philosophy of history in the De civitate Dei, it is the religious philosophy of predestination.

Augustine found it difficult in his old age to reassure some of his own disciples, to whom his doctrine seemed to make moral effort futile and praise and blame alike groundless. But he would retract nothing. His last completed treatises drew out the logic of predestination to its most ruthless conclusions. Though his doctrine in its final form was never accepted by the church, it reappeared virtually unmodified in the writings of both St. Thomas Aquinas and John Calvin, the most acute thinkers, respectively, of Scholasticism and Reform. It may indeed be regarded as product of the too audacious attempt of the time-bound human mind to contemplate existence with the eye of the eternal God. (see also Index: election)

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VI. The influence of Augustine.

VI. ¾Æ¿ì±¸½ºÆ¼´©½ºÀÇ ¿µÇâ

The end of Roman civilization in Africa was near and the Vandal armies were besieging Hippo when Augustine died there on August 28, 430. Not many years later, Vincent of Lérins defined Catholic orthodoxy in the famous phrase, Quod ubique quod semper quod ab omnibus creditum est ("What is everywhere, what is always, what is by all people believed"). He dared not call Augustine a heretic in so many words, but it was against the extravagances that he rightly detected in Augustinian doctrine that his definition was aimed. That these extravagances have been a noxious legacy to theology because of their author's authority cannot be denied. But that should not prevent the grateful acknowledgment of the debt that Christian thinking has owed through the centuries to Augustine's influence, which has spanned and may one day reconcile the divisions of Western Christendom. The secret of that influence is to be found not so much in the brilliance and profundity of his intellect, the magic of his style, or the validity of his constructions as in the unique power of his religious genius. St. Anselm of Canterbury, St. Bernard of Clairvaux, the makers of The Book of Common Prayer, St. Francis de Sales, Blaise Pascal, Jacques-Bénigne Bossuet, Joseph Butler, Jacques Maritain, Reinhold Niebuhr, and Paul Tillich--all these have in their different ways drawn inspiration from one in whom they have been compelled to recognize "the heart of the matter." Verus philosophus est amator Dei ("The true philosopher is the lover of God"). In those words from the De civitate Dei, Augustine has left at once the best portrait of himself and the fullest justification of his life's work.

St. Augustine has been revered as a doctor of the church since the early Middle Ages. His feast is celebrated on August 28. (Jo.Bu.)

¾Æ¿ì±¸½ºÆ¼´©½º°¡ »ç¸ÁÇßÀ» ¶§ È÷Æ÷´Â ¹Ý´ÞÁ·¿¡ ÀÇÇØ Æ÷À§µÇ¾î ÀÖ¾ú°í, ¾ÆÇÁ¸®Ä«ÀÇ ·Î¸¶ ¹®¸íÀº ¸·À» ³»¸®°í ÀÖ¾ú´Ù. ¼ö³â ÈÄ ·¹·©ÀÇ ºóÄËÆ¼¿ì½º´Â °¡Å縯 ±³È¸ÀÇ Á¤Å뼺À» °¡¸®ÄÑ '¾îµð¿¡³ª ÀÖ°í, ¾ðÁ¦³ª ÀÖ°í, ´©±¸³ª ¹Ï´Â °Í'(Quod ubique quod semper quod ab omnibus creditum est)À̶ó´Â À¯¸íÇÑ ±¸Àý·Î Ç¥ÇöÇß´Ù. °¡Å縯 ±³È¸¸¦ ±×ó·³ Á¤ÀÇÇÑ µ¥¿¡´Â ¾Æ¿ì±¸½ºÆ¼´©½ºÀÇ Çм³ °¡¿îµ¥ µé¾î ÀÖ´Â Á»´õ Å͹«´Ï¾ø´Â ÁÖÀåµéÀ» ¹èÁ¦ÇÏ·Á´Â Àǵµ°¡ ÀÖ¾ú´Ù. ±×·¸Áö¸¸ ºóÄËÆ¼¿ì½º´Â °¨È÷ ¾Æ¿ì±¸½ºÆ¼´©½º¸¦ ÀÌ´ÜÀûÀ̶ó°í ÇÏÁö´Â ¸øÇß´Ù. ¾Æ¹«Æ° ¾Æ¿ì±¸½ºÆ¼´©½ºÀÇ Çм³ ¼Ó¿¡ ³¢¿© ÀÖ´Â Á» Å͹«´Ï¾ø´Â ÁÖÀåµéÀº ±×ÀÇ ±ÇÀ§ ¶§¹®¿¡ ½ÅÇÐÀûÀ¸·Î ÇØ·Î¿î À¯»êÀÌ µÇ¾úÀ½Àº »ç½ÇÀÌ´Ù. ±×·± ¹®Á¦°¡ ÀÖÁö¸¸ ±×°¡ ±×¸®½ºµµ±³ »ç»ó¿¡ ³¢Ä£ ¾öû³­ ¿µÇâÀ» ºÎÀÎÇÒ ¼ö´Â ¾ø´Ù. ±×ÀÇ »ç»óÀº ¼­¹æ ±×¸®½ºµµ±³¸¦ Çϳª·Î ¹­¾î¿Ô°í ¾ðÁ¨°¡´Â ÇöÀçÀÇ ºÐ¿­À» Ä¡À¯ÇÒ °ÍÀÌ´Ù. ±×ó·³ Å« ¿µÇâ·ÂÀ» ¹ßÈÖÇÒ ¼ö ÀÖ¾ú´ø ¿øÀÎÀº ¸íÄèÇÏ°í ½É¿ÀÇÑ ±×ÀÇ Áö¼ºÀ̳ª, ½Åºñ½º·´±â±îÁöÇÑ ±×ÀÇ Ç°ÇàÀ̳ª, °Å´ëÇÑ Çй®Ã¼°èº¸´Ù´Â ±×ÀÇ µ¶Æ¯ÇÑ Á¾±³Àû õÀ缺¿¡¼­ ã¾Æ¾ß ÇÒ °ÍÀÌ´Ù. ĵÅͺ£¸®ÀÇ ¼º ¾È¼¿¹«½º, Ŭ·¹¸£º¸ÀÇ ¼º º£¸£³ª¸£µÎ½º([¼º°øÈ¸ ±âµµ¼­ The Book of Common Prayer]ÀÇ ÀúÀÚ), »ì·¹ÀÇ ¼º ÇÁ¶õŰ½ºÄí½º, B. ÆÄ½ºÄ®, ÀÚÅ© º£´Ñ º¸½¬¿¡, Á¶ÁöÇÁ ¹öƲ·¯, ÀÚÅ© ¸¶¸®ÅÊ, ¶óÀÎȦµå ´ÏºÎ¾î, ÆÄ¿ï Æ¿¸®È÷ ÀÌ ¸ðµç »ç¶÷ÀÌ °¢±â ´Ù¸¥ ¹æ½ÄÀ¸·Î ¾Æ¿ì±¸½ºÆ¼´©½º¿¡°Ô Å« ¿µ°¨À» ¹Þ¾Ò´Ù. ±×µéÀº ¾Æ¿ì±¸½ºÆ¼´©½º¿Í ÇÔ²² '¹®Á¦ÀÇ ÇÙ½É'À» ÀÎÁ¤ÇÏÁö ¾ÊÀ» ¼ö ¾ø¾ú´Ù. ±×°ÍÀº "ÂüµÈ öÇÐÀÚ´Â ÇÏ´À´ÔÀ» »ç¶ûÇÏ´Â ÀÚÀÌ´Ù"(Verus philosophus est amator Dei)¶ó´Â °ÍÀÌ´Ù. [½Å±¹]¿¡ µé¾î ÀÖ´Â ÀÌ ¸»À» ÅëÇØ ±×´Â °¡Àå ÈǸ¢ÇÑ ÀÚ±â ÃÊ»óÈ­¸¦ ³²°åÀ¸¸ç, ±×ÀÇ Àú¼úµéÀ» ±×º¸´Ù ´õ Á¤È®ÇÏ°Ô Æò°¡ÇÏ´Â ¸»µµ ¾øÀ» °ÍÀÌ´Ù. Áß¼¼ ÃʱâºÎÅÍ ±×´Â ±³È¸ÀÇ ¹Ú»ç·Î Á¸°æ¹Þ¾Ò´Ù.

VII. Major Works

MAJOR WORKS

TEXT AND TRANSLATIONS: Modern critical editions of St. Augustine's works in the original Latin are in process of publication in the Corpus Scriptorum Ecclesiasticorum Latinorum and in the Corpus Christianorum; but the only available edition complete except for the Sermons is still that of the Benedictines of Saint-Maur (1670-1700), reprinted in Migne's Patrologia Latina. There are no complete English translations of all St. Augustine's works. The largest separate collection is in the series "Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers of the Christian Church" (N.P.N.F.). Translations of most of the Major Works listed below can be found either in this collection or in one or other of the following more recent series: "Ancient Christian Writers" (A.C.W.); "The Fathers of the Church" (F.C.); "The Library of Christian Classics" (L.C.C.).

GENERAL: Confessiones (c. 400; The Confessions, L.C.C.); De doctrina Christiana (397-428; Christian Instruction, F.C.); De Trinitate (400-416; On the Trinity, N.P.N.F.); De civitate Dei (413-426; The City of God, F.C.); Enchiridion ad Laurentium de fide, spe, et caritate (421; Enchiridion to Laurentius on Faith, Hope, and Love, L.C.C.); Sermones (from 391; Selected Sermons, ed. by Quincy Howe, 1966); Epistolae (from 386; Letters, F.C.).

EXEGETICAL: De Genesi ad litteram (401-415), a commentary on the first three chapters of Genesis; De sermone Domini in monte (393-394; Commentary on the Lord's Sermon on the Mount, F.C.); Enarrationes in Psalmos (391-420; Expositions on the Book of Psalms, 1847-57; A.C.W. incomplete); Tractatus in Joannis Evangelium (407-418; Homilies on the Gospel of John, N.P.N.F.); Tractatus in Epistolam Joannis ad Parthos (c. 415; Homilies on St. John's Epistle, L.C.C.).

CONTROVERSIAL: (ANTI MANICHAEAN): De vera religione (c. 390; Of True Religion, L.C.C.); De libero arbitrio (389-395; On Free Will, L.C.C.). (ANTI-DONATIST): De Baptismo, contra Donatistas (400-401; On Baptism, Against the Donatists, N.P.N.F.); Contra litteras Petiliani (400-403; Answers to Letters of Petilian, N.P.N.F.). (ANTI-PELAGIAN): De spiritu et littera (412; The Spirit and the Letter, L.C.C.); De natura et gratia (415; On Nature and Grace, N.P.N.F.); De gratia Christi et de peccato originali (418; On the Grace of Christ, and on Original Sin, N.P.N.F.); De gratia et libero arbitrio (426 or 427; On grace and Free Will, N.P.N.F.).

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VIII. Bibliography

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BIBLIOGRAPHY. A comprehensive bibliography of works dealing with St. Augustine is CARL ANDRESEN (ed.), Bibliographia Augustiniana, 2nd ed. (1973); TARSICIUS J. VAN BAVEL and F. VAN DER ZANDE, Répertoire bibliographique de Saint Augustin (1963), covers material that appeared between 1950 and 1960; for the years 1970-80, see TERRY L. MIETHE, Augustinian Bibliography: 1970-1980 (1982). Annual bibliographies are provided in L'Année philologique (1924- ); Revue des études augustiniennes (quarterly); and Recherches augustiniennes (1958- ).

1. Biography:

WARREN T. SMITH, Augustine: His Life and Thought (1980), is a good introduction. A scholarly and readable biography is PETER R.L. BROWN, Augustine of Hippo (1967). GERALD BONNER, St. Augustine of Hippo: Life and Controversies (1963), is also valuable. Of literary interest is REBECCA WEST, St. Augustine (1933). See also KARL ADAM, Saint Augustine: The Odyssey of His Soul (1932; originally published in German, 1931); and HUGH POPE, Saint Augustine of Hippo (1937, reissued 1961). The problems concerning the chronology and nature of Augustine's conversion, especially as related in his Confessions, are dealt with in PAUL AUBIN, Le Problème de la "Conversion" (1963); J.M. LE BLOND, Les Conversions de Saint Augustin (1950); A.M. LA BONNARDIÈRE, Recherches de chronologie augustinienne (1965); PIERRE P. COURCELLE, Recherches sur les Confessions de Saint Augustin, new ed. (1968); JOHN J. O'MEARA, The Young Augustine (1954, reissued 1980); and MICHELE PELLEGRINO, Les Confessions de Saint Augustin (1961). Augustine's maturity is described in FREDERIK VAN DER MEER, Augustine the Bishop (1961; originally published in Dutch, 1947).

2. Thought:

A general outline of Augustine's thought is provided in PROSPER ALFARIC, L'Évolution intellectuelle de Saint Augustin (1918); also good introductory texts are HENRI I. MARROU, St. Augustine and His Influence Through the Ages (1957; originally published in French, 1956), and Saint Augustin et la fin de la culture antique, 4th ed. (1958); and EUGÈNE PORTALIÉ, A Guide to the Thought of Saint Augustine (1960, reprinted 1975). His philosophy is considered in JAKOB BARION, Plotin und Augustinus (1935); and ÉTIENNE GILSON, The Christian Philosophy of St. Augustine (1960; 2nd French ed., 1943). His political theory and view of history, especially as propounded in De civitate Dei, is the subject of REGINALD H. BARROW, Introduction to St. Augustine: The City of God (1950); JOHN H.S. BURLEIGH, The City of God (1949); HERBERT A. DEANE, The Political and Social Ideas of St. Augustine (1963); and GORDON L. KEYES, Christian Faith and the Interpretation of History: A Study of St. Augustine's Philosophy of History (1966). See also ROBERT A. MARKUS (ed.), Augustine: A Collection of Critical Essays (1972); and ROBERT E. MEAGHER, An Introduction to Augustine (1978), an anthology of passages extracted from Augustine's writings, with commentary.

3. Theology:

For general accounts of Augustine's theology, see JOHN BURNABY, Amor Dei: A Study of the Religion of St. Augustine (1938, reprinted 1960); HENRI DE LUBAC, Augustinianism and Modern Theology (1969; originally published in French, 1965); and E.A. TESELLE, Augustine the Theologian (1970); and PAUL HENRI, The Path to Transcendence: From Philosophy to Mysticism in Saint Augustine (1981; originally published in French, 1938).

4. Special topics:

For Christology, see TARSICIUS J. VAN BAVEL, Recherches sur la Christologie de Saint Augustin (1954); for the Eucharist, GASTON LECORDIER, La Doctrine de l'eucharistie chez S. Augustin (1930); for biblical exegesis, MAURICE PONTET, L'Exégèse de S. Augustin, prédicateur (1946); for predestination and grace, HENRI RONDET, Essais sur la théologie de la grâce (1964). 

J. Buyrnaby ±Û | åÄ٥⪠¿Å±è 


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¡¤ °í¹é,¾Æ¿ì±¸½ºÆ¼´©½º : ¾Æ¿ì±¸½ºÆ¼´©½º, ±èÈñº¸ ¿ª, Á¾·Î¼­Àû, 1989  
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¡¤ ¾î°Å½ºÆ¾ : ±èÁ¤ÁØ, ´ëÇѱ⵶±³¼­È¸, 1991  
¡¤ ¾î°Å½ºÆ¾ÀÇ »ý¾Ö¿Í »ç»ó : ¾ß½ºÆÛ½º, ±èÄè»ó ¿ª, ´ëÇѱ⵶±³¼­È¸, 1991  
¡¤ ¸í»ó·Ï : Ä«¸¦·Î Å©·¹¸ð³ª, ¼º¿° ¿ª, ¼º¹Ù¿À·ÎÃâÆÇ»ç, 1991  
¡¤ ¾î°Å½ºÆ¾ÀÇ »ý¾Ö : D. Å×ÀÏ·¯, ÃÖÄ¡³² ¿ª, »ý¸íÀÇ ¸»¾¸»ç, 1986  
¡¤ ¾î°Å½ºÆ¾ ÀÔ¹® : ·¹¿À ½Ã µ¥Àϸ®, ¹ÚÀϹΠ¿ª, ¼º±¤¹®È­»ç, 1986  
¡¤ È÷Æ÷ÀÇ ¼º¾î°Å½ºÆ¾ :, ·ùÇü±â Æí¿ª, Çѱ¹±âµ¶±³¹®È­¿ø, 1983  
¡¤ Augustine : His Life and Thought : Warren T. Smith, 1980  
¡¤ Bibliographia Augustiniana, 2nd ed. : Carl Andresen (ed.), 1973  
¡¤ Augustins dialogische Metaphysik : R. Berlinger, 1962  
¡¤ The Christian Philosophy of St. Augustine : Etienne Gilson, 1960  
¡¤ Amor Dei : A Study of the Religion of St. Augustine : John Burnaby, 1938(reprinted 1960)  
¡¤ L'Evolution intellectuelle de Saint Augustin : Prosper Alfaric, 1918 

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