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Saint Augustine
¾Æ¿ì±¸½ºÆ¼´©½º
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I. Introduction
II. Youth and conversion.
1. Influence of Manichaeism.
2. Influence of Neoplatonism.
3. Conversion to Christianity.
III. Bishop and Christian philosopher.
1. Theory of the universe.
2. Theory of knowledge.
3. Ethics.
IV. Struggle with the Donatist schism.
V. Struggle with the Pelagian heresy.
VI. The influence of Augustine.
VII. Major Works
VIII. Bibliography
1. Biography:
2. Thought:
3. Theology:
4. Special topics:
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IV. µµ³ªÅõ½ºÆÄ ºÐ¸®ÁÖÀÇ¿Í ÅõÀï
V. ÀÌ´Ü Æç¶ó±â¿ì½ºÁÖÀÇ¿Í ÅõÀï
VI. ¾Æ¿ì±¸½ºÆ¼´©½ºÀÇ ¿µÇâ
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Saint
Augustine (in Latin, Augustinus), bishop of Hippo
in Roman Africa from 396 to 430, and the dominant personality of the Western
Church of his time, is generally recognized as having been the greatest
thinker of Christian antiquity. His mind was the crucible in which the
religion of the New Testament was most completely fused with the Platonic
tradition of Greek philosophy; and it was also the means by which the
product of this fusion was transmitted to the Christendoms of medieval Roman
Catholicism and Renaissance Protestantism. |
Aurelius Augustinus, (¿µ)Saint Augustine. Saint Augustine of Hippo¶ó°íµµ Çϸç, ·Î¸¶·É
¾ÆÇÁ¸®Ä«¿¡ ÀÖ´ø µµ½Ã È÷Æ÷ÀÇ ÁÖ±³(396~430)·Î¼
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Áß¼¼ ·Î¸¶ °¡Å縯 ¼¼°è·Î À̾îÁ³°í ¸£³×»ó½º ½Ã´ëÀÇ
ÇÁ·ÎÅ×½ºÅºÆ®¸¦ ³º¾Ò´Ù.
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This unique significance would have
belonged to Augustine had he never written the famous Confessions,
in which at the age of about 45 he told the story of his own restless
youth and of the stormy voyage that had ended, as he believed, 12 years
before he put it in writing, in the haven of the Catholic Church. It is easy
to forget that the real work of Augustine's life did not begin until the
last scene of the Confessions was already receding for him into a remembered past.
Moreover, the Confessions themselves
are not so much autobiography as they are devotional outpourings of
penitence and thanksgiving. Augustine's conscientious memory generally can
be trusted for the facts: his reflections upon them are those of the bishop
on his knees. This is not to say that, in any attempt to understand or
appreciate the mind of the bishop, the Confessions
can be neglected. The picture must, however, be drawn in proper
proportion; it is essential to avoid giving undue prominence to what should
be no more than its background. |
À¯¸íÇÑ [°í¹é·Ï Confessions]ÀÌ
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Áö³ªÄ£ Âù¾çÀ» ÇØ¼´Â ¾È µÈ´Ù.
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Hippo Regius is the modern Annaba on
the Algerian coast, in what was then the Roman province of Numidia.
Augustine, named Aurelius Augustinus, was born on November 13, 354, of
middle-class parents at Tagaste (modern Souk-Ahras), a small town about 45
miles (72 kilometres) to the south. His father, Patricius, was and remained
until late in life a pagan; his mother, Monica, was a Christian of intense
but simple piety, from whose early teaching Augustine retained a reverence
for the "name of Christ" that never left him. But he was not
baptized in infancy. He went through primary and secondary schooling and
soon displayed such intellectual promise that the modest family funds were
banked upon securing him an academic career that would qualify him for
government service. As a 19-year-old student at Carthage he was stirred by
the reading of a treatise of Cicero--the now lost Hortensius--and
was filled with an enthusiasm for "philosophy," which meant not
only a devotion to the pursuit of truth but a conviction of the superiority
of a life devoted to that pursuit (the vita
contemplative) over any aims of secular ambition. The faith of the
Catholic Church seemed to him too hopelessly unphilosophical for any man of
culture to entertain; and he was easily carried away by the discovery in Manichaeism
of a religion that professed to appeal to reason rather than authority.
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The Manichaean system as propagated
in the Western Roman Empire was a materialistic
dualism that accounted for
the creation of the world as the product of a conflict between light and
dark substances and for the soul of man as an element of the light entangled
in the dark. Manichaeism claimed to be the true Christianity, preaching
Christ as the Redeemer who enables the imprisoned particles of light to
escape and return to their own region. In the Manichaean Church the higher
order of "elect"
adhered to a strict regimen of asceticism
and celibacy, all physical generation being held to serve the realm of
darkness. After an adolescence that probably was no more licentious than was
common in his time and country, Augustine had formed a liaison with a woman
of low birth by whom he had a son and to whom he remained loyally attached
throughout the nine years of his association with the Manichaeans, and he
was therefore allowed to join that sect's lower order as one of the
"hearers," to whom marriage was permitted as a concession to human
weakness.
His first zeal for this
"religion of enlightenment" did not last long, however, for the
Manichaean experts were intellectually second rate and proved incapable of
dealing with the questions he put to them. He became increasingly
disillusioned and was already falling into a general agnosticism when, at
the age of about 28, he left Carthage, where he had worked as a free-lance
teacher of rhetoric, and went to Rome in search of more satisfactory pupils.
There he made connections that led to an official professorship at Milan,
where the Western emperor then resided.The bishop of Milan was Ambrose,
the most eminent Christian churchman of the day. Augustine was introduced to
Ambrose but never came to know him well. He went to hear him preach,
however, and this, his first contact with the mind of a Christian
intellectual, was enough to shake Augustine's prejudice against Catholic
teaching. Although he had abandoned the doctrines of Manichaeism, he
retained its materialistic presuppositions, which left him still a skeptic
with no satisfying alternative to Manichaean notions of ultimate reality.
The being of God and the nature and origin of evil remained for him problems
as insoluble as they had ever been. (see also Index:
good and evil)
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The solution of both problems was
given to him by a chance introduction to Neoplatonic
writings, for which he may well have been prepared by Ambrose's use of
them in some of his sermons. Neoplatonism, in the work of the 3rd-century
philosopher and mystic Plotinus,
its greatest exponent, is a spiritual monism--a
philosophical doctrine holding that there is only one reality--according to
which the universe exists as a series of emanations or degenerations from
absolute unity. From the transcendent One arises self-conscious mind or
spirit; from mind comes soul
or life; and soul is the intermediary between the spheres of spirit and of
sense. Matter is the lowest and last product of the supreme unity; and since
the One is also the real and the good, the potentiality of evil is
identified with unformed matter as the point of maximum departure from the
One. Evil itself is thus the least real of all things, being simply the
privation or absence of good. Neoplatonic mysticism relies on the principle
that the inward is superior to the outward: to reach the good, which is the
real, one must "return into" oneself; for it is the spirit at the
heart of man's inmost self that links him to the ultimate unity. (see also Index:
Christianity)
In the seventh book of the Confessions,
Augustine tells how in such an act of introspection he found God--the
"changeless light," at once immanent and transcendent, which is
the source of every intuitive recognition of truth and goodness. This
discovery of God was more than the conclusion of a process of reasoning: it
was a mystical experience, a vision or touch that came and went. But it left
behind it the answer to Augustine's unsatisfied questionings. God is light,
and evil is darkness, as the Manichaeans said. But neither is a material
substance: the changeless light of God is pure spiritual being, and the evil
is nonentity, as darkness is but the absence of light.
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Augustine's mystical experience, his
awareness of God, had been momentary and fleeting. He believed that this
could be only because he had not made for himself the necessary total
identification of supreme value with spirit; he was still himself entangled
with the flesh. In fact, Neoplatonism had reinforced the Manichaean
principle that the way of return to God must be through escape from the
body; and for Augustine this meant primarily and immediately escape from the
ties of sexuality. The immortal story of his conversion in the eighth book
of the Confessions tells of his
coming to learn of the heroic achievements of Christian asceticism in East
and West, of the self-contempt induced in him by the contrast of his own
weakness, and of the final breakdown of resistance in a Milan garden, when,
at the sound of a child's voice calling "tolle,
lege: tolle, lege" ("take
up and read"), he opened the New Testament Letters and read in Letter
of Paul to the Romans the words, ". . . put on the Lord Jesus Christ,
and make no provision for the flesh, to gratify its desires" (Rom.
13:14).
This was in the late summer of the
year 386. Vacation was near, and Augustine resigned his teaching chair and
went with some young pupils, his son Adeodatus, and his mother Monica to a
reading party at a country house lent by a friend. Out of their literary
study and philosophical discussions there came the earliest of Augustine's
surviving works--the dialogues, which display so little of the storm and
stress of a religious conversion and so little concern with specifically
Christian themes that critics have been led to question the accuracy of the Confessions story written many years later. It is true that
Augustine's struggle against the domination of his sexual nature can be
regarded as the final phase in that fluctuating pursuit of the
"philosophic life" first presented to him by Cicero's Hortensius.
But there is no sufficient reason for doubting that he was a Catholic
Christian in intention when he received Baptism at the hands of Ambrose in
the spring of 387. It is certain that three or four years later, when he
wrote his treatise De vera religione ( Of True
Religion), he was still thinking of Christianity in Neoplatonic terms.
In this treatise, the divine Word ( Logos)
in Christ is the mind or spirit of Plotinus, illuminating the reason,
through whom the human soul has access to the transcendent Godhead. Christ's
human life is man's example of the ascetic victory over the pains and
pleasures of the flesh; Christian morals serve only to
purify the soul for the life of contemplation;
and Christian faith is the necessary acceptance of the church's authority in
this preliminary stage of training.
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Shortly after his Baptism, Augustine
left Milan, with his mother and a small party of friends, to return to
Africa. At Rome's port city of Ostia, his mother died; and Augustine
recorded his last talk with her, in which son led mother, through a
discourse formed on the pattern of the Neoplatonic "ascent" from
this world to the other, to share with him a momentary experience of the
life eternal. Home again at Tagaste, the friends formed a little community
devoted to the religious life of contemplation and study. But its peace was
soon broken when, on a visit to Hippo in 391, Augustine was forced to accept
ordination as assistant priest to its old bishop, Valerius. Five years later
Valerius died, and Augustine entered the episcopate in which he was to
labour until his death. The bishop in Roman Africa was not only the pastor
of a parish, the busy teacher and preacher, but the presiding judge in a
much-frequented court of summary jurisdiction in civil cases. Augustine
never enjoyed robust health, and the vast extent of his literary output was
made possible only by the constant services of stenographers and by an
extraordinary capacity for the extempore formulation of ordered thought, of
which at least 400 sermons remain as proof. He was not a systematic
theologian. Much of his writing was in response to the appeals that his
growing reputation in the Christian world brought to him for the solution of
the most diverse problems. Over 200 of his letters have been preserved, many
of them having the scale of minor treatises. He was tireless in controversy
with heretics--Manichaeans, Donatists, and Pelagians. But his deepest
thought, the real Augustinianism, is to be found in his scripture
commentaries and homilies, especially his expositions of the Psalms and his
writings on the Gospel and First Letter of John. The characteristic pattern
he imposed upon Christian theology was not the outcome of controversy.
The decisive turn was given to his
thinking by his ordination to the priesthood, which dragged him against his
will from the vita contemplative into
the world and at the same time diverted his studies from philosophy to
Scripture. The realities of pastoral experience among the very imperfectly
Christianized people of an African seaport, together with the rapid
impregnation of his mind with the categories of biblical religion, made it
impossible for him to overlook the differences between Neoplatonism and
Pauline Christianity. The knowledge of God and of the soul always remained
from the time of his Baptism the one and only knowledge that he desired; and
Plotinus had not been mistaken in bidding him look within himself if he
would find God, for the Bible also tells of a likeness to God imprinted on
the soul. But although for the Neoplatonist the soul's likeness to God is
that of a, so to speak, reduced divinity, for the Christian it is that of a
temporal and mutable image of the "eternal and changeless."
Augustine was assured that it is the task of a Christian philosophy, guided
by the scriptural revelation, to seek to know God through his image in the
soul; and this was the path he followed in his great treatise De
Trinitate ( On
the Trinity). He insisted that a true knowledge of the
soul's nature can be based only on the immediate awareness of
self-consciousness; and the soul's awareness of itself is of a trinity in
unity that reflects "as in a glass darkly" the being of its Maker.
He claimed that knowledge of one's own being, of one's own thinking, of
one's own willing is not open to doubt; there is an ego that exists, knows,
and wills. But in none of these aspects is the ego self-sufficient or
independent: it cannot maintain its own being, produce its own knowledge, or
satisfy its own desires. Augustine believed that he had learned from the
Platonists to find in God "the author of all existences, the
illuminator of all truth, the bestower of all beatitude" (De
civitate Dei viii, 4). But his theories of the universe, of knowledge,
and of ethics were his own. The following three paragraphs summarize these
theories.
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Creation in Plotinus is motiveless
and purposeless, the automatic by-product of the divine
self-contemplation; in Augustine its source is "the will of a good God
that good things should be" (De
civitate Dei xi, 21). The outgoing energy of creative love forms the
basic principle of his entire theology. Since nothing can come into being or
continue in it but by this divine will to create, all that exists is good
"in so far as it has being"; and because there are evidently
degrees of goodness, there must also be degrees of being. But even the
formless matter that is nearest to "not being" is essentially good
because God made it; the origin of evil is not to be sought in material
existence. Augustine persistently refused to unload upon the material
conditions of human life the responsibility for human wickedness. (see also Index:
Christianity)
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ÇÏ´À´ÔÀÌ ¸¸µé¾ú±â ¶§¹®¿¡ º»ÁúÀûÀ¸·Î ¼±ÇÏ´Ù. ¾ÇÀÇ ±â¿øÀ»
¹°Áú¿¡¼ ãÀ¸¸é ¾È µÈ´Ù. ¾Æ¿ì±¸½ºÆ¼´©½º´Â ¾ÇÀÇ Ã¥ÀÓÀ»
¹°ÁúÀû Á¶°Ç¿¡ µ¹¸®·Á´Â µ¥ ¹Ý´ëÇß´Ù.
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Following Plato, Augustine argued
that the ability to make true judgments never can be inserted into the mind
from outside. The human teacher never can do more than help his pupil to see
for himself what he already knew without being aware of it. Augustine's
favourite examples of these intuitive judgments are the propositions of
mathematics and the appreciation of moral values; they are not the
construction of the individual mind, because when properly formulated they
are accepted by all minds alike. The individual thinker does not make the
truth, he finds it; and he is able to do so because Christ, the revealing
Word of God, is the magister interior,
the "inward teacher," who enables him to see the truth for
himself when he listens to him.
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µû¶ó ¾Æ¿ì±¸½ºÆ¼´©½º´Â ÂüµÈ Áö½ÄÀ» ¸¸µå´Â ´É·ÂÀ» ¹Û¿¡¼
ÁÖÀԵǴ °ÍÀ¸·Î º¸Áö ¾Ê¾Ò´Ù. ±³»ç°¡ ÇÒ ÀÏÀº
ÇлýÀÌ ÀÌ¹Ì ¾Ë°í ÀÖµÇ ´Ù¸¸ ÀǽÄÇÏÁö ¸øÇÏ´Â °ÍÀ» ½º½º·Î
º¸µµ·Ï µ½´Â µ¥ Áö³ªÁö ¾Ê´Â´Ù°í Çß´Ù. ±×·± Á÷°üÀû Áö½ÄÀÇ
¿¹·Î ¼öÇÐÀû ¸íÁ¦µé°ú µµ´ö°¡Ä¡ÀÇ ÀνÄÀ» µé¾ú´Ù. ±×°ÍµéÀº
¾î´À ÇÑ °³ÀÎÀÌ ¸¸µé¾î³½ °ÍÀÌ ¾Æ´Ï´Ù. ´©±¸³ª ¶È°°ÀÌ
¹Þ¾ÆµéÀ̱⠶§¹®ÀÌ´Ù. »ç»ó°¡´Â Áø¸®¸¦ ¸¸µé¾î³»´Â °ÍÀÌ
¾Æ´Ï¶ó ¹ß°ßÇÏ´Â °ÍÀÌ´Ù. »ç»ó°¡°¡ Áø¸®¸¦ ¹ß°ßÇÏ´Â °ÍÀº
°è½ÃÇϽô ÇÏ´À´ÔÀÇ ¸»¾¸ÀÎ ±×¸®½ºµµ°¡ '³»¸éÀÇ ½º½Â'ÀÌ
µÇ¾î¼ ±×¿¡°Ô ±Í±â¿ïÀÌ´Â ÀÚ¸¶´Ù Áø¸®¸¦ ½º½º·Î º¼ ¼ö ÀÖ°Ô
Çϱ⠶§¹®ÀÌ´Ù.
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Augustine accepts the basic
assumption of ancient ethical theory that conduct is properly directed to
the achievement of eudaimonia--the
happiness or well-being that is taken to be the one universal desire of
humanity. Augustine's cosmos is an ordered structure in which the degrees of
being are at the same time degrees of value. This universal order requires
the subordination of what is lower in the scale of being to what is higher:
body is to be subject to spirit, and spirit to God. Man must know his place
in the order of the universe and, knowing it, must voluntarily accept it;
that is, he must set upon himself and upon everything else the relative
value that is properly due. Augustine's word for the ethical valuation that
influences conduct is amor ("love").
Amor is the moral dynamic that
impels man to action. If it is rightly directed man will never set a higher
value on what is lower in the scale. All lesser goods are to be
"used" as means or aids toward the higher; only the highest is to
be "enjoyed" as the ultimate end on which the heart is set. The
supreme good in whose fruition alone man reaches his perfection is for
Augustine the God whose nature is agape,
love in the New Testament sense of the word. If, then, man's love, his amor,
can rise to the enjoyment of God, it will become a participation in the
divine agape, love itself. God will have given himself to men, and by
sharing in his love men will love one another as he loves them, drawing from
him the power to give themselves to others.
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°í´ë À±¸®ÀÌ·ÐÀÇ ±âº» °¡¼³À» ¼ö¿ëÇß´Ù. 'À¯´ÙÀ̸ð´Ï¾Æ'(eudaimonia),
Áï Àΰ£ÀÇ º¸Æí¿å±¸ÀÎ Çູ ¶Ç´Â º¹Áö¸¦ À§ÇØ ÇൿÇ϶ó´Â
°ÍÀÌ´Ù. Áú¼Á¤¿¬ÇÑ ¾Æ¿ì±¸½ºÆ¼´©½ºÀÇ ¿ìÁÖ ¼Ó¿¡¼ °¡Ä¡ÀÇ
µî±ÞÀº Á¸ÀçÀÇ µî±Þ°ú ÀÏÄ¡Çß´Ù. Á¸Àç µî±ÞÀÌ ³·Àº °ÍÀº
³ôÀº °Í¿¡ º¹Á¾Çϵµ·Ï µÇ¾î ÀÖ¾ú´Ù. À°Àº ¿µ, °ð Á¤½Å¿¡
º¹Á¾ÇØ¾ß Çϰí Á¤½ÅÀº ÇÏ´À´Ô¿¡°Ô º¹Á¾ÇØ¾ß ÇÑ´Ù. Àΰ£Àº
¿ìÁÖ ¼Ó¿¡¼ ÀÚ±âÀÇ À§Ä¡¸¦ ¾Ë¾Æ¾ß Çϰí, ¶ÇÇÑ ÈçÄèÈ÷
¹Þ¾Æµé¿©¾ß ÇÑ´Ù. ÀÚ±â ÀڽŰú ´Ù¸¥ ¸ðµç °Í¿¡ °¢±â ÇÕ´çÇÑ
»ó´ëÀû °¡Ä¡¸¦ ºÎ¿©ÇØ¾ß ÇÑ´Ù. Çൿ¿¡ ¿µÇâÀ» ÁÖ´Â À±¸®Àû
°¡Ä¡Æò°¡¸¦ À§ÇÑ ¾Æ¿ì±¸½ºÆ¼´©½ºÀÇ ¿ë¾î´Â ' »ç¶û'(amor)ÀÌ´Ù.
»ç¶ûÀº »ç¶÷ÀÌ ÇൿÇϵµ·Ï ÇÏ´Â µµ´öÀû ÈûÀÌ´Ù. »ç¶ûÀÇ
¹æÇâÀÌ ¿Ã¹Ù·Î µÇ¾î ÀÖÀ» ¶§´Â µî±ÞÀÌ ³·Àº Á¸Àç¿¡ ³ôÀº
°¡Ä¡¸¦ µÎ´Â ÀÏÀÌ ¾ø´Ù. ³·Àº ¼±Àº ³ôÀº ¼±À» À§ÇÑ ¼ö´ÜÀ¸·Î
'ÀÌ¿ë'µÇ¾î¾ß ÇÑ´Ù. ÃÖ°íÀÇ ¼±¸¸À» ±Ã±ØÀû ¸ñÇ¥·Î ¸¶À½¿¡
µÎ°í 'Áñ°Ü¾ß' ÇÑ´Ù. Àΰ£Àº ÃÖ°íÀÇ ¼± ¼Ó¿¡¼¸¸ ¿ÏÀüÈ÷
µµ´ÞÇϴµ¥, ¾Æ¿ì±¸½ºÆ¼´©½º¿¡°Ô ÀÖ¾î¼ ÃÖ°í¼±Àº
ÇÏ´À´ÔÀÌ´Ù. ÇÏ´À´ÔÀº »ç¶ûÀ̸ç, [½Å¾à¼º¼]¿¡¼ ¸»ÇÏ´Â '¾Æ°¡Æä'ÀÌ´Ù.
±×·¯¹Ç·Î »ç¶÷ÀÇ »ç¶ûÀÌ ÇÏ´À´ÔÀ» Áñ±â´Â µ¥ À̸£¸é ±×´Â '¾Æ°¡Æä',
°ð »ç¶û ÀÚü¿¡ Âü¿©ÇÏ°Ô µÉ °ÍÀÌ´Ù. ÇÏ´À´ÔÀÌ ÀÚ½ÅÀ»
»ç¶÷¿¡°Ô ÁÖ¾úÀ¸´Ï, ±×·± ÇÏ´À´ÔÀÇ »ç¶û ¼Ó¿¡¼ »ç¶÷Àº
¼·Î¸¦ »ç¶ûÇÒ ¼ö ÀÖ°í, ÇÏ´À´Ôó·³ ÀÚ½ÅÀ» ³²¿¡°Ô ÁÙ ¼ö
ÀÖ´Â ÈûÀ» Áö´Ò ¼ö ÀÖ´Ù.
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The energies of Augustine, both
pastoral and literary, were for the first 15 years of his episcopate
distracted by the wearisome struggle to end the schism in the African Church
that had persisted for nearly a century. The Donatists,
a Christian sect (named after Donatus, one of its leaders) the members of
which outnumbered the Catholics in the country districts and in many towns,
claimed to be the only true church on the ground that their ministry was the
only one the succession of which had not been stained by apostasy in the
great persecution of the years 303-313, which had begun under the emperor
Diocletian. Imperial attempts to suppress the schism had stimulated the
martyr spirit that had always marked African Christianity and gained
Donatism the support of strong elements in the native population whose
grievances were social and economic rather than ecclesiastical. The schism
maintained itself by fanatical violence, and Augustine's persevering
attempts to settle the questions at issue by peaceful discussion were
fruitless. In the end, the imperial government became convinced that the
Donatists were a danger to the security of Africa. The Donatist bishops were
compelled to meet their Catholic rivals at a formal conference held
under an official arbitrator at Carthage in 411, the foregone conclusion
of which was a Catholic victory.
Donatists and Catholics agreed that
the power of the Holy Spirit
is conveyed to the believer through the sacraments,
which are administered by the church through the clergy. The Donatists
alleged, however, that the sacraments require for their validity a ministry
undefiled by serious sin; for the Spirit departs from the sinner, who cannot
therefore "confer what he does not possess." Augustine replied
that the sacraments convey the Spirit in virtue of Christ's ordinance alone
and that this validity is unaffected by the worthiness or unworthiness of
the human minister. The church's unity depends on the Spirit's supreme gift
of charity, of which schism is the denial. Unfortunately, Augustine, who had
for long opposed the use of any means but persuasion to end the schism,
eventually was induced to approve the enforcement of legal penalties upon
the schismatics, in the interest, as he believed, of the many whose fear of
Donatist violence had kept them from returning to the church. His famous
saying, "Love, and do what thou wilt," was in fact a defense of
compulsion in the service of charity.
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As the Donatist controversy was
ending, the Pelagians were
already beginning to threaten the traditional doctrines of sin
and redemption in the Western Church. Pelagius had set himself to resist the
slackening of Christian moral standards. Against those who pleaded human
frailty in excuse for their failings, he insisted that God has made every
man alike free to choose and to perform the good; that it is the essence of
sin to be a voluntary act that God's law forbids and that the sinner was
free to avoid; and that, were not this freedom real, there could be no
justice in God's punishments and rewards. This reduction of Christianity to
a bleak moralism could not avoid conflict with the plain implications of the
church's sacramental and liturgical practice. Baptism
had always been "for the remission of sins," and infants were held
to need it because they inherit the guilt of Adam's transgression, which, as
St. Paul taught, brought death upon the whole race of men. The doctrine of original
sin was firmly established in the Western Church before Augustine's
time; and when it was openly rejected by Pelagius' disciple Celestius,
there was no escape for Pelagianism
from being branded as a heresy. The prevarications of Pelagius were able to
persuade Pope Zosimus
(417-418) to reverse the condemnation pronounced by his predecessor,
Innocent I. But in the spring of 418 the African bishops obtained from the
emperor Honorius an edict banishing the heretics; and Zosimus was obliged to
come into line.
Augustine was the soul of the
Church's resistance. He had seen Pelagianism at once as not merely a denial
of the virtue of Christian Baptism but also as a fatal misconception of the
relationship between God and man. For to assert that man can achieve
righteousness by his own effort is to contradict the fundamental truth that
God is the giver of all good.
Before the controversy began,
Augustine had worked out his own rationalizations of the doctrines of
original sin and divine grace--rationalizations
that the church was to prove unwilling to accept fully. He accepted the
traditional belief in the fact and in the penal consequences of Adam's
transgression, defining the fact as man's refusal to accept his place in the
created order, and the consequences as a dislocation of the order of man's
own nature--the revolt of flesh against spirit. He argued that not only are
all men involved in Adam's guilt and punishment but also that this
involvement takes effect through the dependence of human
procreation on the sexual passion, in which the spirit's inability to
control flesh is evident. It was this linking of original sin with human
sexuality that exposed Augustine in his old age to the most damaging
criticisms of the Pelagian bishop Julian
of Eclanum, who boldly asserted the moral neutrality of the
instincts that belong to man's created nature and charged Augustine with
relapsing into Manichaeism in his argument that an impulse that a man is
bound to fight and conquer must therefore be evil.
For Augustine the fall of man means
that in all men the true order of love has been violated. Departing from the
love of God above him, man has followed the love of self and become subject
to what is below him. Man has fallen by the act of his own will. He cannot
by a similar exercise of will reverse the consequences of that fall. The
subjection of spirit to flesh is a slavery from which the perverted will has
no power to deliver itself, just because it cannot will the deliverance.
What is needed is a kind of reversal of gravity--the substitution of an
uplifting for a down-dragging love. And Augustine believed that this could
happen only by that gracious descent of the divine love to dwell within the
sinner: the gospel of the incarnation and of Pentecost.
Pelagius, on the other hand, argued
that all men have been created free to do what is right when they see it,
and that Christians have received the needed moral enlightenment in Christ's
teaching and example. Augustine knew the unreality of the Pelagian
conception of freedom as an innate and absolute power of choice, unaffected
by circumstances. He pointed to the inescapable conditioning of all moral
activity by the situation of the agent--outside whose control are in general
not only the presentation of an object but also the kind of feeling that the
presentation excites. Moreover, the act of will is dependent on feeling as
well as on cognition. In Augustine's words:
Men will not do what is right,
either because the right is hidden from them or because they find no delight
in it. But that what was hidden may become clear, what delighted not may
become sweet--this belongs to the grace of God" (De peccatorum meritis et
remissione).
Augustine insisted that without this
delight in righteousness there can be no true freedom in well-doing, but
only a servile obedience to law. The love of God, which is the motive of the
Christian life, must be free. Yet love of God, as St. Paul said, enters
man's heart by the gift of the Holy Spirit; and Augustine found it
increasingly difficult to leave room in his doctrine of grace for a
genuinely free response on man's part to the Spirit's gift. The unexamined
assumption that everything in human life must be ascribed either to God's or
to man's working compelled him to hold that God alone is the cause of every
human movement toward good. In the first year of his episcopate, the study
of St. Paul's argument in Rom. 9-11 had convinced him that no event in time
can alter the eternal setting of God's will toward any human soul: his elect
are chosen before the foundations of the world. God knows--not before, but
apart from, the time process--how each individual in the course of time will
respond to the particular form in which grace is offered to him; and the
elect alone receive the grace that will win their acceptance.
The rigour of this doctrine did not
soften in face of the Pelagian challenge. In De
civitate Dei (The City
of God ), the
masterpiece on which Augustine was working throughout the Pelagian
controversy, he drew a picture, as majestic as it is appalling, of the
"beginnings, course and destined ends" of the two invisible
societies of the elect and the damned. The work seems to have been in his
mind before the capture of Rome by the Visigoths in 410 had shaken the
empire; but it took the form of a Christian apologetic against the pagan
claim that the disaster was consequence and punishment of Rome's apostasy
from its ancestral religion. Augustine's two cities are not to be identified
with the Christian Church and the pagan or secular state. They are symbolic
embodiments of the two spiritual powers that have contended for allegiance
in God's creation ever since the fall of the angels--faith and unbelief,
"the love of self extending to contempt for God, and the love of God
extending to contempt of self." Neither power is embodied in its purity
in any earthly institution; in this world the heavenly and earthly cities
are inextricably intermingled. If there is a philosophy of history in the De
civitate Dei, it is the religious philosophy of predestination.
Augustine found it difficult in his
old age to reassure some of his own disciples, to whom his doctrine seemed
to make moral effort futile and praise and blame alike groundless. But he
would retract nothing. His last completed treatises drew out the logic of
predestination to its most ruthless conclusions. Though his doctrine in its
final form was never accepted by the church, it reappeared virtually
unmodified in the writings of both St. Thomas Aquinas and John Calvin, the
most acute thinkers, respectively, of Scholasticism and Reform. It may
indeed be regarded as product of the too audacious attempt of the time-bound
human mind to contemplate existence with the eye of the eternal God. (see
also Index: election)
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The end of Roman civilization in
Africa was near and the Vandal armies were besieging Hippo when Augustine
died there on August 28, 430. Not many years later, Vincent
of Lérins defined Catholic orthodoxy in the famous phrase, Quod
ubique quod semper quod ab omnibus creditum est ("What is
everywhere, what is always, what is by all people believed"). He dared
not call Augustine a heretic in so many words, but it was against the
extravagances that he rightly detected in Augustinian doctrine that his
definition was aimed. That these extravagances have been a noxious legacy to
theology because of their author's authority cannot be denied. But that
should not prevent the grateful acknowledgment of the debt that Christian
thinking has owed through the centuries to Augustine's influence, which has
spanned and may one day reconcile the divisions of Western Christendom. The
secret of that influence is to be found not so much in the brilliance and
profundity of his intellect, the magic of his style, or the validity of his
constructions as in the unique power of his religious genius. St. Anselm of
Canterbury, St. Bernard of Clairvaux, the makers of The
Book of Common Prayer, St. Francis de Sales, Blaise Pascal, Jacques-Bénigne
Bossuet, Joseph Butler, Jacques Maritain, Reinhold Niebuhr, and Paul
Tillich--all these have in their different ways drawn inspiration from one
in whom they have been compelled to recognize "the heart of the
matter." Verus philosophus est amator Dei ("The true philosopher is the
lover of God"). In those words from the De civitate Dei, Augustine has left at once the best portrait of
himself and the fullest justification of his life's work.
St. Augustine has been revered as a
doctor of the church since the early Middle Ages. His feast is celebrated on
August 28. (Jo.Bu.)
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MAJOR WORKS
TEXT AND TRANSLATIONS: Modern
critical editions of St. Augustine's works in the original Latin are in
process of publication in the Corpus
Scriptorum Ecclesiasticorum Latinorum and in the Corpus
Christianorum; but the only available edition complete except for the
Sermons is still that of the Benedictines of Saint-Maur (1670-1700),
reprinted in Migne's Patrologia
Latina. There are no complete English translations of all St.
Augustine's works. The largest separate collection is in the series
"Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers of the Christian Church"
(N.P.N.F.). Translations of most of the Major Works listed below can be
found either in this collection or in one or other of the following more
recent series: "Ancient Christian Writers" (A.C.W.); "The
Fathers of the Church" (F.C.); "The Library of Christian
Classics" (L.C.C.).
GENERAL: Confessiones (c. 400; The
Confessions, L.C.C.); De doctrina
Christiana (397-428; Christian
Instruction, F.C.); De Trinitate (400-416;
On the Trinity, N.P.N.F.); De
civitate Dei (413-426; The City of
God, F.C.); Enchiridion ad
Laurentium de fide, spe, et caritate (421; Enchiridion
to Laurentius on Faith, Hope, and Love, L.C.C.); Sermones (from 391; Selected
Sermons, ed. by Quincy Howe, 1966);
Epistolae (from 386; Letters,
F.C.).
EXEGETICAL: De Genesi ad litteram (401-415), a commentary on the first three
chapters of Genesis; De sermone Domini
in monte (393-394; Commentary on
the Lord's Sermon on the Mount, F.C.); Enarrationes
in Psalmos (391-420; Expositions
on the Book of Psalms, 1847-57; A.C.W. incomplete); Tractatus in Joannis Evangelium (407-418; Homilies on the Gospel of John, N.P.N.F.); Tractatus in Epistolam Joannis ad Parthos (c. 415; Homilies on St. John's
Epistle, L.C.C.).
CONTROVERSIAL: (ANTI MANICHAEAN): De
vera religione (c. 390; Of True Religion, L.C.C.);
De libero arbitrio (389-395; On
Free Will, L.C.C.). (ANTI-DONATIST): De
Baptismo, contra Donatistas (400-401; On
Baptism, Against the Donatists, N.P.N.F.); Contra
litteras Petiliani (400-403; Answers
to Letters of Petilian, N.P.N.F.). (ANTI-PELAGIAN): De
spiritu et littera (412; The
Spirit and the Letter, L.C.C.); De
natura et gratia (415; On Nature and
Grace, N.P.N.F.); De gratia
Christi et de peccato originali (418; On
the Grace of Christ, and on Original Sin, N.P.N.F.); De gratia et libero arbitrio (426 or 427; On grace and Free Will, N.P.N.F.).
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BIBLIOGRAPHY. A comprehensive
bibliography of works dealing with St. Augustine is CARL ANDRESEN (ed.), Bibliographia
Augustiniana, 2nd ed. (1973);
TARSICIUS J. VAN BAVEL and F. VAN DER ZANDE, Répertoire
bibliographique de Saint Augustin (1963), covers material that appeared
between 1950 and 1960; for the years 1970-80, see TERRY L. MIETHE, Augustinian Bibliography: 1970-1980 (1982). Annual bibliographies
are provided in L'Année
philologique (1924- ); Revue des
études augustiniennes (quarterly); and Recherches
augustiniennes (1958- ).
WARREN T. SMITH, Augustine: His Life and Thought (1980), is a good introduction. A
scholarly and readable biography is PETER R.L. BROWN, Augustine of Hippo (1967). GERALD BONNER, St. Augustine of Hippo: Life and Controversies (1963), is also
valuable. Of literary interest is REBECCA WEST, St. Augustine (1933). See also KARL ADAM, Saint Augustine: The Odyssey of His Soul (1932; originally published
in German, 1931); and HUGH POPE, Saint
Augustine of Hippo (1937, reissued 1961). The problems concerning the
chronology and nature of Augustine's conversion, especially as related in
his Confessions, are dealt with in
PAUL AUBIN, Le Problème de la
"Conversion" (1963); J.M. LE BLOND, Les Conversions de Saint Augustin (1950); A.M. LA BONNARDIÈRE,
Recherches de chronologie
augustinienne (1965); PIERRE P. COURCELLE, Recherches
sur les Confessions de Saint Augustin, new ed. (1968); JOHN J. O'MEARA, The
Young Augustine (1954, reissued 1980); and MICHELE PELLEGRINO, Les
Confessions de Saint Augustin (1961). Augustine's maturity is described
in FREDERIK VAN DER MEER, Augustine
the Bishop (1961; originally published in Dutch, 1947).
A general outline of Augustine's
thought is provided in PROSPER ALFARIC, L'Évolution
intellectuelle de Saint Augustin (1918); also good introductory texts
are HENRI I. MARROU, St. Augustine and
His Influence Through the Ages (1957; originally published in French,
1956), and Saint Augustin et la fin de
la culture antique, 4th ed. (1958); and EUGÈNE PORTALIÉ, A Guide to the Thought of Saint Augustine (1960, reprinted 1975).
His philosophy is considered in JAKOB BARION, Plotin und Augustinus (1935); and ÉTIENNE GILSON, The
Christian Philosophy of St. Augustine (1960; 2nd French ed., 1943). His
political theory and view of history, especially as propounded in De
civitate Dei, is the subject of REGINALD H. BARROW, Introduction
to St. Augustine: The City of God (1950); JOHN H.S. BURLEIGH, The
City of God (1949); HERBERT A. DEANE, The
Political and Social Ideas of St. Augustine (1963); and GORDON L. KEYES,
Christian Faith and the Interpretation of History: A Study of St.
Augustine's Philosophy of History (1966). See also ROBERT A. MARKUS
(ed.), Augustine: A Collection of
Critical Essays (1972); and ROBERT E. MEAGHER, An
Introduction to Augustine (1978), an anthology of passages extracted
from Augustine's writings, with commentary.
For general accounts of Augustine's
theology, see JOHN BURNABY, Amor Dei:
A Study of the Religion of St. Augustine (1938, reprinted 1960); HENRI
DE LUBAC, Augustinianism and Modern
Theology (1969; originally published in French, 1965); and E.A. TESELLE,
Augustine the Theologian (1970);
and PAUL HENRI, The Path to
Transcendence: From Philosophy to Mysticism in Saint Augustine (1981;
originally published in French, 1938).
For Christology, see TARSICIUS J.
VAN BAVEL, Recherches sur la
Christologie de Saint Augustin (1954); for the Eucharist, GASTON
LECORDIER, La Doctrine de
l'eucharistie chez S. Augustin (1930); for biblical exegesis, MAURICE
PONTET, L'Exégèse de S.
Augustin, prédicateur (1946); for predestination and grace, HENRI
RONDET, Essais sur la théologie
de la grâce (1964).
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¡¤ Çϳª´Ô µµ¼º Àü5±Ç : ¾Æ¿ì±¸½ºÆ¼´©½º, ±èÁ¾Èí ¿Ü ¿ª,
Å©¸®½ºÂù´ÙÀÌÁ¦½ºÆ®, 1992
¡¤ ¾î°Å½ºÆ¾ÀÇ Âüȸ·Ï : ¾Æ¿ì±¸½ºÆ¼´©½º, ±èÁ¤ÁØ ¿ª,
´ëÇѱ⵶±³¼È¸, 1991
¡¤ ¾Æ¿ì±¸½ºÆ¼´©½ºÀÇ ÀºÇý·Ð : ¾Æ¿ì±¸½ºÆ¼´©½º, ±èÁ¾Èí ¿ª,
»ý¸íÀǸ»¾¸»ç, 1990
¡¤ °í¹é,¾Æ¿ì±¸½ºÆ¼´©½º : ¾Æ¿ì±¸½ºÆ¼´©½º, ±èÈñº¸ ¿ª,
Á¾·Î¼Àû, 1989
¡¤ Âüȸ·Ï °ÇØ : ¾Æ¿ì±¸½ºÆ¼´©½º, ¹Ú¿¬¿í ¿ª, È«½ÅÃâÆÇ»ç,
1987
¡¤ ¾î°Å½ºÆ¾ÀÇ ÀÚÀ¯ÀÇÁö·Ð : ¾Æ¿ì±¸½ºÆ¼´©½º, ¹ÚÀϹΠ¿ª,
dz¸¸, 1986
¿¬±¸¼ ¡¤ ¾î°Å½ºÆ¾ »ý¾Ö¿Í »ç»ó : ÇÇÅÍ ºê¶ó¿î, Â÷Á¾¼ø ¿ª,
´ëÇÑ¿¹¼ö±³Àå·ÎȸÃÑȸ, 1992
¡¤ ¾î°Å½ºÆ¾ : ±èÁ¤ÁØ, ´ëÇѱ⵶±³¼È¸, 1991
¡¤ ¾î°Å½ºÆ¾ÀÇ »ý¾Ö¿Í »ç»ó : ¾ß½ºÆÛ½º, ±èÄè»ó ¿ª,
´ëÇѱ⵶±³¼È¸, 1991
¡¤ ¸í»ó·Ï : Ä«¸¦·Î Å©·¹¸ð³ª, ¼º¿° ¿ª, ¼º¹Ù¿À·ÎÃâÆÇ»ç,
1991
¡¤ ¾î°Å½ºÆ¾ÀÇ »ý¾Ö : D. Å×ÀÏ·¯, ÃÖÄ¡³² ¿ª, »ý¸íÀÇ ¸»¾¸»ç,
1986
¡¤ ¾î°Å½ºÆ¾ ÀÔ¹® : ·¹¿À ½Ã µ¥Àϸ®, ¹ÚÀϹΠ¿ª,
¼º±¤¹®È»ç, 1986
¡¤ È÷Æ÷ÀÇ ¼º¾î°Å½ºÆ¾ :, ·ùÇü±â Æí¿ª, Çѱ¹±âµ¶±³¹®È¿ø,
1983
¡¤ Augustine : His Life and Thought : Warren T. Smith, 1980
¡¤ Bibliographia Augustiniana, 2nd ed. : Carl Andresen (ed.),
1973
¡¤ Augustins dialogische Metaphysik : R. Berlinger, 1962
¡¤ The Christian Philosophy of St. Augustine : Etienne Gilson,
1960
¡¤ Amor Dei : A Study of the Religion of St. Augustine : John Burnaby,
1938(reprinted 1960)
¡¤ L'Evolution intellectuelle de Saint Augustin : Prosper Alfaric,
1918
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[ À§·Î ] [ About Augustine ] [ CONFESSIONS ] [ The City of God ] [ On Christian Doctrine ] [ Enchiridion On Faith, Hope, and Love ] [ Sermon On the Mount ] [ The Harmony of The Gospels ] [ Sermons On New Testament ]
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